幻想-东邪黄药师

Windows 7

2011-08-22T07:05:00.000-07:00

Windows 7 Ultimate (x32 x64) bit 2011 Activated – Free MediaFire Download Links

This is the most complete release which includes all available verisons of Windows 7 (except “N” and “E” editions) :
**********************************
* Windows 7 Starter 32-bit
* Windows 7 Home Basic 32/64-bit
* Windows 7 Home Premium 32/64-bit
* Windows 7 Professional 32/64-bit
* Windows 7 Enterprise 32/64-bit
* Windows 7 Ultimate 32/64-bit
**********************************

Windows 7 Starter
*********************

Windows 7 Home Basic is available in emerging markets such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, the People’s Republic of China, Colombia, India, Pakistan, Panama, Philippines, Mexico, Russia, Thailand, and Turkey. It is not available in developed technology markets countries including in Western and Central Europe, North America, Hong Kong, Australia and Saudi Arabia. Some Aero options are excluded along with several new features. Home Basic, along with other editions sold in emerging markets, include geographical activation restriction, which requires users to activate Windows within a certain region
or country.

Windows 7 Home Premium
*********************

This edition contains features aimed at the home market segment, such as Windows Media Center, Windows Aero and multi-touch support.

Windows 7 Professional
*********************

This edition is targeted towards enthusiasts and small-business users. It includes all the features of Windows 7 Home Premium, and adds the ability to participate in a Windows Server domain. Additional features include operating as a Remote Desktop server, location aware printing, Encrypting File System, Presentation Mode, Software Restriction Policies (but not the extra management features of AppLocker) and Windows XP Mode. Like Enterprise, Microsoft will support this edition until 2020.

Windows 7 Enterprise
*********************

This edition targets the enterprise segment of the market and is sold through volume licensing to companies which have a Software Assurance contract with Microsoft. Additional features include support for Multilingual User Interface (MUI) packages, BitLocker Drive Encryption, and UNIX application support. Not available through retail or OEM channels, this edition is distributed through Microsoft Software Assurance (SA). As a result it includes several SA-only benefits, including a license allowing the operating of diskless nodes (diskless PCs), the running of multiple virtual machines, and activation via VLK. Like Professional, Microsoft will support this edition until 2020.

Windows 7 Ultimate
*********************

Windows 7 Ultimate contains all of the same features as Windows 7 Enterprise, but unlike the Enterprise edition, it is available to home users on an individual license basis. Windows 7 Home Premium and Windows 7 Professional users are able to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate for a fee using Windows Anytime Upgrade if they wish to do so. Unlike Windows Vista Ultimate, the Windows 7 Ultimate edition does not include the Windows Ultimate Extras feature or any exclusive features as Microsoft had stated. However, even though it is the consumer equivalent to Enterprise, Microsoft will only support Ultimate until 2015, as per Home Premium.[/code]

"N" and "E" editions
E editions
The features in the E Editions are the same as their equivalent full versions, but do not include Internet Explorer. The cost of the E Editions are the same as the full versions, as Internet Explorer can be downloaded without charge from Microsoft for the E Editions.
N editions
The features in the N Editions are the same as their equivalent full versions, but do not include Windows Media Player. The cost of the N Editions are the same as the full versions, as Windows Media Player can be downloaded without charge from Microsoft for the N Editions.

Service Pack 1
Microsoft released the first official service pack for Windows 7 on February 22, 2011. This is an important update that includes previously released security, performance, and stability updates for Windows 7. SP1 also includes new improvements to features and services in Windows 7, such as improved reliability when connecting to HDMI audio devices, printing using the XPS Viewer, and restoring previous folders in Windows Explorer after restarting.
Windows 7 Service Pack 1 is an update that does the following :

- Helps keep PCs supported.
- Provides ongoing improvement to the operating system, by including previous updates delivered over Windows Update as well as continuing incremental updates to the Windows 7 platform based on customer and partner feedback.
- Makes it easy for organizations to deploy a single set of updates.

Changes specific to Windows 7

Additional support for communication with third-party federation services
Additional support has been added to allow Windows 7 clients to effectively communicate with third-party identity federation services (those supporting the WS-Federation passive profile protocol). This change enhances platform interoperability, and improves the ability to communicate identity and authentication information between organizations.

Improved HDMI audio device performance
A small percentage of users have reported issues in which the connection between computers running Windows 7 and HDMI audio devices can be lost after system reboots. Updates have been incorporated into SP1 to ensure that connections between Windows 7 computers and HDMI audio devices are consistently maintained.

Corrected behavior when printing mixed-orientation XPS documents
Prior to the release of SP1, some customers have reported difficulty when printing mixed-orientation XPS documents (documents containing pages in both portrait and landscape orientation) using the XPS Viewer, resulting in all pages being printed entirely in either portrait or landscape mode. This issue has been addressed in SP1, allowing users to correctly print mixed-orientation documents using the XPS Viewer.

How to install :
**************

Extract using WinRAR.
- Use ImgBurn** to burn the extracted ISO file called "Windows.7.SP1.ENG.x86-x64.ACTiVATED.GetMediaFire.com"
* You can use any other software for this operation (Nero, Alcohol, CloneCD...)
* Burning speed should not be faster than 4x.
- Restart your computer*.
* You can install it from existing OS, but I'll recommend the clean installation.
- Make sure you've seleceted your DVD-ROM/RW drive as a first boot device (BIOS setup)*
* If you don't know how to do that, check this link http://www.hiren.info/pages/bios-boot-cdrom
- The text message will appear "Press any key to boot from CD or DVD...."
* By pressing the key you're entering the setup.
- Select your language, time and currency and keyboard input (optionaly)
- Click "Install now".
- Choose your edition* (x86 is 32-bit, x64 is 64-bit) depending of CPU type you have.
* Note that if you have less than 4GB of RAM, x64 will be useless.
- Click "I accept".
- Click "Custom (advanced).
- Choose your partition/hdd drive where Win7 should be installed and click format.
* Setup will continue automaticly and it will finish after 15-30 min.
- Next step will be username (Image 17).
- Type your password (if you want).
- Choose the third option for next step.
- Select your time zone.
- Select your current location.
- And the last step will be silent auto-activation*
* Your PC will restart for the last time.

And that would be all about installation. You're in Win.

Activation
***************

This release has integrated RemoveWAT 2.2.6.0.
This tool completely removes Windows Activation Technologies from your sytem and your Windows will be fully activated and fully updateable, plus, you won't have to worry about malicious updates (i.e. KB971033) which can deactivate your copy of Windows.
It runs automaticly and silently after the setup.

x64 Recovery
****************

This release has integrated Windows 7 Recovery Disc which can be used to access a system recovery menu, giving you options of using System Restore, Complete PC Backup, automated system repair and a command-line promptfor manual advanced recovery. Note that you cannot use the Windows 7 Recovery Disc to re-install Windows. It only fixes Windows.

- FAQ -

Q : The ISO is kinda different from the one that Microsoft provides on MSDN. What's changed?
A : A few things. For example, this installation has brand patch, so it will automaticly find
your brand (i.e. MSI, ASUS, HP, DELL, Toshiba...). Second thing : it has integrated x64 recovery
disc. It also has integrated activator. And basicly, that's all.

Q : Ok, but what has been modified in Windows?
A : Actually, nothing. Installation is untouched and all the setting are deafault. The
only thing that has been injected at the end of the setup is RemoveWAT tool which helps you to
activate your copy. But the Windows itself remains completely untouched.

Q : But if it's pirated, can I use Windows Update?
A : Yup. Feel free!

Q : So, will it ever get deactivated...?
A : Probably not. But that depends both of Microsoft and you. In other words, if you are
carefull with Windows Update there's nothing not worry about. Keep the auto-updates off
and do it manually by reading the description of every new update..

If you have problems with Microsoft Security Essentials :

1. Restore WAT and reboot.
2. Download MSE :

http://www.microsoft.com/security_essentials/default.aspx

3. Install
4. Remove WAT.

RemoveWAT is located in :
\\sources\Windows 7 Ultimate (x32 x64) bit 2011 ActivatedoemWindows 7 Ultimate (x32 x64) bit 2011 Activated\Windows 7 Ultimate (x32 x64) bit 2011 ActivatedWindows 7 Ultimate (x32 x64) bit 2011 Activated\Setup\scripts\faXcooL.exe[/code]

Controlling a Nokia 6100 Display with an Atmel-AVR

2011-08-18T03:36:00.000-07:00

Bild 1: What are we going to do tonight, Brain?

The Display (which is used in Nokia 6100, 7210, 6610, 7250 and 6220) has a resolution of 132x132 Pixel @4096 Colors. The visible area is about 3cm x 3cm in size. It can be found cheap at *bay. Note that there exist three types of Displays:

Green PCB: Epson S1D15G10 Chipset
Orange/Brown PCB with solder pins: Philips PCF8833 Chipset
Orange/Brown PCB: ?

The provided Software does only work with Displays with the Philips chipset. If you want to use a Display with S1D15G10-chipset, take a look here: ~~http://www.e-dsp.com/controlling-a-color-graphic-lcd-epson-s1d15g10-controller-with-an-atmel-avr-atmega32l/~~

Hardware

I have used a AVR ATMega8 to control the Display.
The display works at 3,3V. I use a voltage divider (1.8k, 3.3k to GND) to convert the 5V signals of the controller to 3,3V levels for the display.

I directly soldered a ribbon cable on the back side of the display.

Bild 2: Nokia 6100 Display Pinout

Pinout and connection to AVR:

1	VDD 3,3V
2	/Reset	PB4
3	SDATA	PB3
4	SCLK	PB5
5	/CS	PB2
6	VLCD 3,3V
7	NC
8	GND
9	LED-
10	LED+ (6V)
11	NC

no responsibility is taken for the correctness of this information.

Test

With the 8-Bit AVR Microcontroller i have build a rainbow-Animation, a simple oscilloscope and a Wireframe-3D-Engine:

Video 1: Rainbow-Animation

Video 2: Simple oscilloscope

Video 3: 3D Engine based on ATMega8 AVR

Software

The Software can be compiled with AVR-GCC. It display a test picture first.
It is possible to upload a RAW-RGB-Image-File via the serial interface.

Bild 3: Test image

Bild 4: Test image: Spiderman

Bild 5: Test image: Yeti

Bild 6: Test image: Winamp

nokia_6100_display_test.zip (42 KB) -

Philips/NXP PCF8833 Datasheet

crack

2011-08-13T00:00:00.001-07:00

The Tools
To perform this hack you will be needing -

Any De-assembler (I use Hackers Disassembler and Hview )
Resource Hacker
A patch Creator ( Use Universal Patch Creator or Code fusion)

You will be able to get them by googling ..

How to Reverse Engineer?
You need to have a bit knowledge of assembly language,and in case you don't have it,just cram the steps and it will work anytime,every time. Download the latest version of WinRAR from their website and install it.
I will be cracking Winrar 3.80 here (cuz I already have it:P ). This is basically a 2 step process ( 4 step ,if you want to do things with a professional touch,period) .

Now copy the WinRAR.exe file to desktop. Make a copy of it there.

Step 1 – Hunting for Memory Address
Now load Hackers Disasembler and load the copy in it.

The Disassembler will disassemble the executable in assembly code. Now you need to search for strings that are used in WinRAR program. Press Ctrl + F and type “evaluation” without quotes and search in the assembly code. Hit enter..

After you have reached this block of code by searching, just look at the block of code above it. There you will find that some assembly values are being compared and then code is jumped to some other function. Now see carefully, the “evaluation copy” function must be invoked after some specific condition is met. We need to look for it at the code and the make certain changes to the condition so that the program doesn't checks for the condition.

In the above code you can see this code -

00444B6A: 803DF4B84B0000 cmp byte ptr [004BB8F4], 00
00444B71: 0F859B000000 JNE 00444C12

This is the code responsible for validating you as a legal user :) . Just note down the memory address that leads to jump (JNE) at some memory location. In this case, note down 00444B71 .
Note : For any WinRAR version, this code and memory address might be different,but the JNE will be same. Just note down the respective memory address that checks.
Now you need to search for the code that brings that ugly nag screen “Please purchase WinRAR license” after your trial period of 40 days is over. For this,look over your toolbar and click on “D” which stands for looking for Dialog references.

Now in the dialog box that opens,search for “please” and you will get the reference as -

ID-REMINDER, “Please purchase WinRAR license”

Double click on it and you will reach the subsequent code.

The code will be something like

* String: “REMINDER”
0048731A: 68EB5E4B00 push 004B5EEB

Just note the memory address that invokes the REMINDER dialog. In this case its 0048731A. Note it down.
Note : For any WinRAR version, this code and memory address might be different.But the Reminder Memory address code will always PUSH something. Just note down the respective memory address that PUSH ‘s.

Step 2 – Fixing and Patching
Now in this step we will be patching up values of memory addresses we noted earlier. I will be doing this using HVIEW.
Now load the copy you disassembled in Hacker’s Disassembler in Hview.

After you have loaded it, you will see the code is unreadable. Its just like opening an EXE file in notepad. You need to decode it. To do that, just press F4 and yoiu will get an option to decode it. Hit DECODE and you will be able to see code in the form of assembly code and memory addresses.

After you have done that, you need to search for memory addresses you noted down earlier. Just hit F5 and a search box will be there. Now you need to enter the memory address. To do that, enter a “.” and the type memory address neglecting the earlier “00” . The “.” will suffice for “00”. ie -

Type .444B71 in place of 00444B71

and search in the code.

After you have reached the respective code, you need to make changes to it. Press F3 and you will be able to edit the code.Now make the following changes -

After you have done it, save it by pressing F9.
Now search for next memory location by pressing F5 and entering it. Reach there and make the following changes by pressing F3 -

Save the changes by pressing F9 and exit HVIEW by pressing F10.
Congrats..You have cracked WinRAR :) Replace the original WinRAR.exe with this copyofwinrar.exe by renaming it. It will work 100% fine :P

Step 3 – Spicing up the EXE
Now U have a 100% working version of EXE, you might want to change your registration information in WinRAR. TO do this, you can use Resource hacker.

Launch Resource Hacker, load the copyofwinrar.exe in it

Now go to DIALOG –> Expand tree –> ABOUTRARDLG and click it. Now Find Trial copy line and replace it with your favorite one :P

and click on Compile Script button.

Now save the file with any name on your desktop or any location what so ever.

Now you have a fully patched WinRAR.exe file :)) . If you want to learn that, move on to next step.

Step 4 – Creating a working Patch (or giving Professional touch :P )
I will be using diablo2oo2's Universal Patcher (UPE) for creating the patch. The patch will work like any authentic one for that WinRAR version. Just like the one U downloaded at anytime of your life from any Crack and Keygen website.
Launch Patch Creator and click on add new project. Enter project Information and click on save.

Click on Add – ; Offset patch

After you have done that, double click on offset patch and then

Give path of original winrar.exe
Give path of unmodified Winrar.exe (again)
Give path for fully patched Winrar.exe (ie Cracked Winrar.exe in this case)
Click on compare and it will show difference between both files
Click on save.

Now in the next window, click on Create Patch and save it. The Patch will be created. Now copy it in WinRAR installation directory and hit on patch, it WILL work.

Congrats you have created a patch of your own and have learned to reverse engineer WinRAR :)

You can crack other software in the same way…just practice,debug and disassemble and you will get the way :)

cmucam

2011-07-26T02:00:00.000-07:00

//PIC: PIC16F877A
//Crystal Frequency: 20MHz
//Compiler: HI-TECH ANSI C

#include
#include
__CONFIG(0x3F32);
#define LCD_RS RD0
#define LCD_RW RD1
#define LCD_EN RD2
#define LCD_LIGHT RD3
#define LCD_DATA PORTD //D7-D4
#define LCD_PULSE() ((LCD_EN=1),(LCD_EN=0))
#define BAUD 9600
#define _XTAL_FREQ 20000000

void pic_init(void);
void uart_init(void);
void lcd_init(void);
void lcd_write(unsigned char c);
void lcd_clear(void);
void lcd_goto(unsigned char pos);
void lcd_string(const char *s);
void convert(unsigned int no, char base);
void display(char number);
void uart_transmit(char data);
void uart_string(const char *s);

char mode,cam[40],di[10],z,rec[]={"ACK"};
unsigned int counter[2];

static void interrupt isr(void)
{char i;
if(RCIF==1){
counter[0]=0;
if(RCREG=='T') z=0;
cam[z]=RCREG;
if(z<38) z++;} if(TMR0IF==1){ TMR0IF=0; if(counter[0]<20000) counter[0]++; if(counter[0]==5000) z=0; } } main() {int i,j,space,value[8]; pic_init(); //initialize PIC uart_init(); //initialize UART lcd_init(); //initialize LCD lcd_goto(0x00); //select first line lcd_string(" CMUCAM EXAMPLE "); //display string lcd_goto(0x40); //select second line lcd_string(" "); //display string lcd_goto(0x14); //select third line lcd_string(" "); //display string lcd_goto(0x54); //select fourth line lcd_string(" "); //display string LCD_RS=0; lcd_write(0x40); LCD_RS=1; for(i=0;i<=63;i++) lcd_write(0b00000); mode=0; counter[1]=0; for(;;){ counter[1]++; switch(mode){ case 0:{ if(counter[1]==1){ for(i=0;i<=39;i++) cam[i]=0x20; lcd_goto(0x40); //select second line lcd_string("RS "); //display string uart_string("RS"); uart_transmit(0x0D);} //Enter else if(counter[1]==1000){ counter[1]=0; j=0; for(i=0;i<=2;i++){ if(cam[i]==rec[i]) j++;} if(j==3){ counter[1]=0; mode++;}} lcd_goto(0x14); //select third line LCD_RS=1; for(i=0;i<=19;i++) lcd_write(cam[i]); lcd_goto(0x54); //select fourth line LCD_RS=1; for(i=20;i<=39;i++) lcd_write(cam[i]); break;} case 1:{ if(counter[1]==1){ for(i=0;i<=39;i++) cam[i]=0x20; lcd_goto(0x40); //select second line lcd_string("CR 18 44 "); //display string uart_string("CR"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("18"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("44"); uart_transmit(0x0D);} //Enter else if(counter[1]==1000){ counter[1]=0; j=0; for(i=0;i<=2;i++){ if(cam[i]==rec[i]) j++;} if(j==3){ counter[1]=0; mode++;}} lcd_goto(0x14); //select third line LCD_RS=1; for(i=0;i<=19;i++) lcd_write(cam[i]); lcd_goto(0x54); //select fourth line LCD_RS=1; for(i=20;i<=39;i++) lcd_write(cam[i]); break;} case 2:{ if(counter[1]==1){ for(i=0;i<=39;i++) cam[i]=0x20; lcd_goto(0x40); //select second line lcd_string("TC 0 40 0 40 0 40 "); //display string uart_string("TC"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("0"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("40"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("0"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("40"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("0"); uart_transmit(0x20); //Space uart_string("40"); uart_transmit(0x0D);} //Enter for(i=0;i<=7;i++) value[i]=0; space=0; i=2; do{ if((cam[i]<0x30)|(cam[i]>0x39)) space++;
else value[space]=10*value[space]+cam[i]-0x30;
i++;}
while(space!=8);

lcd_goto(0x14);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[0],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[1],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[2],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[3],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");

lcd_goto(0x54);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[4],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[5],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[6],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
convert(value[7],10);
for(i=2;i>=0;i--) display(di[i]);
lcd_string(" ");
break;}
default:{
mode=0;
break;}}
}}

void pic_init(void)
{
TRISA=0b00000000;
TRISB=0b00000000;
TRISC=0b10000000;
TRISD=0b00000000;
TRISE=0b00000000;
OPTION=0b00000000;
ADCON1=0b00000110;
INTCON=0b11100000;
PIE1=0b00100000; //Enable RX interrupt
PORTA=0b00000000;
PORTB=0b00000000;
PORTC=0b00000000;
PORTD=0b00000000;
PORTE=0b00000000;
}

void uart_init(void)
{
TXSTA=0b10100100;
RCSTA=0b10010000;
SPBRG=(int)(_XTAL_FREQ/(16.0*BAUD)-1);
}

/* initialise the LCD - put into 4 bit mode */
void lcd_init(void)
{
__delay_ms(15); //delay for LCD Power Up
lcd_write(0x28); //function set
lcd_write(0x0C); //display on/off control
lcd_clear(); //clear screen
lcd_write(0x06); //entry mode set
LCD_LIGHT=1;
}

/* write a byte to the LCD in 4 bit mode */
void lcd_write(unsigned char c)
{
LCD_DATA=(LCD_DATA&0x0F)|(c&0xF0);
LCD_PULSE();
LCD_DATA=(LCD_DATA&0x0F)|((c<<4)&0xF0);
LCD_PULSE();
__delay_us(40);
}

/* clear LCD and goto home */
void lcd_clear(void)
{
LCD_RS=0;
lcd_write(0x1);
__delay_ms(2);
}

/* write a string of chars to the LCD */
void lcd_string(const char *s)
{
LCD_RS=1;
while(*s)
lcd_write(*s++);
}

/* go to the specified position */
void lcd_goto(unsigned char pos)
{
LCD_RS=0;
lcd_write(0x80+pos);
}

void convert(unsigned int no, char base)
{char i;
for(i=0;i<=9;i++) di[i]=0;
i=0;
do{
di[i]=no%base;
no=no/base;
i=i+1;}
while(no!=0);
}

void display(char number)
{switch(number){
case 0:{lcd_string("0");break;}
case 1:{lcd_string("1");break;}
case 2:{lcd_string("2");break;}
case 3:{lcd_string("3");break;}
case 4:{lcd_string("4");break;}
case 5:{lcd_string("5");break;}
case 6:{lcd_string("6");break;}
case 7:{lcd_string("7");break;}
case 8:{lcd_string("8");break;}
case 9:{lcd_string("9");break;}
case 10:{lcd_string("A");break;}
case 11:{lcd_string("B");break;}
case 12:{lcd_string("C");break;}
case 13:{lcd_string("D");break;}
case 14:{lcd_string("E");break;}
case 15:{lcd_string("F");break;}
default:{lcd_string("?");break;}
}}

void uart_transmit(char data){
while(TXIF==0) continue;
TXREG=data;
}

void uart_string(const char *s)
{
while(*s)
uart_transmit(*s++);
}

2011-07-13T21:13:00.000-07:00

Board Description

You can power the board by USB bus.
The USB can supply 500mA, so there is enough power to drive relays and displays. The microcontroller has a USB port on board . You can drive up to 8 relays and read the status of 8 optocoupler. You can use this inputs for switches, push buttons, or to have a feed back to see if the relays have been effectively switched. The communication protocol between PC and board is very simple, for example, sending the character "6" on the virtual RS232 the first relay will turn on and the board will replay with an "I" character, this response is an acknowledge and makes you sure that the command arrived and was correctly executed.

HW description

The board is made of:

PCB;
microcontroller Microchip (18f2455 -see the Datasheet) with 32 Kb off flash memory, 256 byte of Eeprom memory and controller USB;
Optocoupler for input (TPL4N25-4).
USB Connector
Relays. We can mount two type of relay, one with maximum 30Vcc (or
125Vac) or another with 230Vac, 2A contact.

Schematics

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Firmware description

The board firmware receives a command from the PC (using the get function) elaborate the command (by ProcessIO function) and executes the command(toggle the relay or read the input).
This is and example of the source code of the firmware:

void main(void) { /* A7  A6  A5  A4  A3  A2  A1  A0 */ /*    1     1     1     1    1     1     0     0 */ LATA &= 0x0; TRISA &= 0xFC; /* configure port A of uC */ /* B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0  */ /*    1   1    1    1   1    1   1    1  */ LATB &= 0x0; TRISB &= 0xFF; /* configure port B of uC */ /* C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0 */ /*   0    0    1    1   1    1   0    0 */ LATC &= 0x0; TRISC &= 0x3C; /* configure porta C of uC */ InitializeSystem(); mLED_1_Off();  MSB_num_restart = ReadEEPROM(0x20); LSB_num_restart = RedEEPROM(0x21); if ((MSB_num_restart == 0xFF)&(LSB_num_restart == 0xFF)){   /* blank eeprom */ MSB_num_restart = 0 ; LSB_num_restart = 0 ;  WriteEEPROM ( 0x20, 0); WriteEEPROM ( 0x21, 0); } else {  if (LSB_num_restart == 0xFF){  MSB_num_restart = MSB_num_restart +1; WriteEEPROM ( 0x20, MSB_num_restart); WriteEEPROM ( 0x21, 0); LSB_num_restart = 0; } else {  LSB_num_restart = LSB_num_restart +1; WriteEEPROM ( 0x21, LSB_num_restart); } } EnablePullups();     /* enable pull-up on PORTB */ while(1) { USBTasks();        /*  USB Tasks  */ ProcessIO();        /* See user\user.c & .h */ } } void ProcessIO(void) {    if((usb_device_state < CONFIGURED_STATE)||(UCONbits.SUSPND==1)) return; if(getsUSBUSART(input_buffer,1)){ ... if(input_buffer[0] == '6') /* 0x36 */ { if(mUSBUSARTIsTxTrfReady()){ mRele_1_On();                /* turn on relay number 1*/ putrsUSBUSART("I");    /* acknoledge */ } } ... } }

void main(void) { /* A7  A6  A5  A4  A3  A2  A1  A0 */ /*    1     1     1     1    1     1     0     0 */ LATA &= 0x0; TRISA &= 0xFC; /* configure port A of uC */ /* B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0  */ /*    1   1    1    1   1    1   1    1  */ LATB &= 0x0; TRISB &= 0xFF; /* configure port B of uC */ /* C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0 */ /*   0    0    1    1   1    1   0    0 */ LATC &= 0x0; TRISC &= 0x3C; /* configure porta C of uC */ InitializeSystem(); mLED_1_Off();  MSB_num_restart = ReadEEPROM(0x20); LSB_num_restart = RedEEPROM(0x21); if ((MSB_num_restart == 0xFF)&(LSB_num_restart == 0xFF)){   /* blank eeprom */ MSB_num_restart = 0 ; LSB_num_restart = 0 ;  WriteEEPROM ( 0x20, 0); WriteEEPROM ( 0x21, 0); } else {  if (LSB_num_restart == 0xFF){  MSB_num_restart = MSB_num_restart +1; WriteEEPROM ( 0x20, MSB_num_restart); WriteEEPROM ( 0x21, 0); LSB_num_restart = 0; } else {  LSB_num_restart = LSB_num_restart +1; WriteEEPROM ( 0x21, LSB_num_restart); } } EnablePullups();     /* enable pull-up on PORTB */ while(1) { USBTasks();        /*  USB Tasks  */ ProcessIO();        /* See user\user.c & .h */ } } void ProcessIO(void) {    if((usb_device_state < CONFIGURED_STATE)||(UCONbits.SUSPND==1)) return; if(getsUSBUSART(input_buffer,1)){ ... if(input_buffer[0] == '6') /* 0x36 */ { if(mUSBUSARTIsTxTrfReady()){ mRele_1_On();                /* turn on relay number 1*/ putrsUSBUSART("I");    /* acknoledge */ } } ... } }

The ProcessIO() function waits for a command. On this example when the board receives the "6" character on virtual RS232 (the USB) the first relay will turn on and answer with "I" character. You can also read how many time the board has been turned on, this counter is saved on the eeprom memory inside the PIC microcontroller.

Software description

Here is an example of software written with Visual Basic. From left ToolBox import the "SerialPort" control. We will use 3 functions of this control, which are: Open, Write, Read

Let's start opening the serial port, with SerialPort.Open.

The SerialPort.Open needs a serial port number to be opened; it is the number
of the virtual serial port (usually it is COM4).
After the virtual serial port is opened, you can send commands using
SerialPort.Write function, for example if you want to turn on the first relay:
SerialPort.Write("6")

To read the answer from the board and to acknowledge the command received
use the SerialPort.Read function

Command protocol

Send 0 = 0x30 = 48 => Turn on Led and answer  "A" Send 2 = 0x32 = 50 => Turn off Led and answer  "C" Send 5 = 0x35 = 53 => if the puss button is pressed, answer  "G"  otherwise "H" Send 6 = 0x36 = 54 => Turn on Relay 1 and answer  "I" Send 7 = 0x37 = 55 => Turn off Relay 1 and answer  "L" Send 8 = 0x38 = 56 => Turn on Relay 2 and answer  "M" Send 9 = 0x39 = 57 => Turn off Relay 2 and answer  "N" Send a = 0x61 = 97 => Turn on Relay 3 and answer  "O" Send b = 0x62 = 98 => Turn off Relay 3 and answer  "P" Send c = 0x63 = 99 => Turn on Relay 4 and answer  "Q" Send d = 0x64 = 100 => Turn off Relay 4 and answer  "R" Send e = 0x65 = 101 => if input 1 is on, answer  "S" otherwise "T" Send f = 0x66 = 102 => if input 2 is on, answer  "U" otherwise "V" Send g = 0x67 = 103 => if input 3 is on, answer  "W" otherwise "Y" Send h = 0x68 = 104 => if input 4 is on, answer  "J" otherwise "K" Send i = 0x69 = 105 => if input 5 is on, answer  "Z" otherwise "a" Send l = 0x6C = 108 => if input 6 is on, answer  "b" otherwise "c" Send m = 0x6D = 109 => if input 7 is on, answer  "d" otherwise "e" Send n = 0x6E = 110 => if input 8 is on, answer  "f" otherwise "g" Send o = 0x6F = 111 => Turn on Relay 5 and answer  "H" Send p = 0x70 = 112 => Turn off Relay 5 and answer  "B" Send q = 0x71 = 113 => Turn on Relay 6 and answer  "D" Send r = 0x72 = 114 => Turn off Relay 6 and answer  "E" Send s = 0x73 = 115 => Turn on Relay 7 and answer  "F" Send t = 0x74 = 116 => Turn off Relay 7 and answer  "G" Send u = 0x75 = 117 => Turn on Relay 8 and answer  "X" Send v = 0x76 = 118 => Turn off Relay 8 and answer  "m"

You can also read how many time the board has been powered up:

Send w = 0x77 = 119 => Read the Most significant part of number of restart Send z = 0x7A = 122 => Read the Least significant part of number of restart

SW_PC_Relay_USB.zip289.38 KB

Free Energy

2011-07-06T20:41:00.001-07:00

The purpose of this web site is to provide you with an introduction to a series of devices which have been shown to have very interesting properties and some are (incorrectly) described as 'perpetual motion' machines.
What's that you say - perpetual motion is impossible? My, you're a difficult one to please. The electrons in the molecules of rock formations have been spinning steadily for millions of years without stopping - at what point will you agree that they are in perpetual motion?
So, why don't electrons run out of energy and just slow down to a standstill? Quantum Mechanics has shown that the universe is a seething cauldron of energy with particles popping into existence and then dropping out again. If E = mC², then we can see that a tremendous amount of energy is needed to create any form of matter. Scientists remark that if we could tap even a small part of that energy, then we would have free energy for our lifetime.
The Law of Conservation of Energy is undoubtedly correct when it shows that more energy cannot be taken out of any system than is put into that system. However, that does not mean that we cannot get more energy out of a system than we put into it. A crude example is a solar panel in sunlight. We get electrical power out of the panel but we do not put the sunlight into the panel - the sunlight arrives on its own. This example is simple as we can see the sunlight reaching the solar panel.
If, instead of the solar panel, we had a device which absorbs some of the energy which Quantum Mechanics observes and gives out, say, electrical power, would that be so different? Most people say "yes! - it is impossible!" but this reaction is based on the fact that we cannot see this sea of energy. Should we say that a TV set cannot possibly work because we cannot see a television transmission signal?
Many people have produced devices and ideas for tapping this energy. The energy is often called "Zero-Point Energy" because it is the energy which remains when a system has its temperature lowered to absolute zero. This presentation is introductory information on what has already been achieved in this field: devices which output more power than they require to run. This looks as if they contradict the Law of Conservation of Energy, but they don't, and you can see this when you take the zero-point energy field into account.
The material on this web site describes many different devices, with diagrams, photographs, explanations, pointers to web sites, etc. As some of the devices need an understanding of electronic circuitry, a simple, step-by-step instruction course in electronics is also provided in Chapter 12. This can take someone with no previous knowledge of electronics, to the level where they can read, understand, design and build the type of circuits used with these devices.
This is a very interesting field and the topic is quite absorbing once you get past the "it has to be impossible" attitude. We were once told that it would be impossible to cycle at more than 15 mph as the wind pressure would prevent the cyclist from breathing. Do you want to stay with that type of 'scientific' expert? Have some fun - discover the facts.
There are many, many interesting devices and ideas already on the web. This site does not mention them all by any means. What it does, is take some of what are in my opinion, the most promising and interesting items, group them by category, and attempt to describe them clearly and without too many technical terms. If you are not familiar with electronics, then some items may be difficult to understand. In that case, I suggest that you start with Chapter 12 and go through it in order, moving at whatever speed suits you, before examining the other sections. I hope you enjoy what you read.

Note: When you have finished reading any of the sections shown below, use the 'Back' button of your browser to return to this page. You will need Version 7.0 or later of the Adobe 'Acrobat' reader to display these sections. It can be downloaded free from: here

THE INFORMATION PRESENTED ON THIS WEB SITE IS FOR INFORMATION PURPOSES ONLY. SHOULD YOU DECIDE TO PERFORM EXPERIMENTS OR CONSTRUCT ANY DEVICE, YOU DO SO WHOLLY ON YOUR OWN RESPONSIBILITY -- NEITHER THE COMPANY HOSTING THIS WEB SITE, NOR THE SITE DESIGNER ARE IN ANY WAY RESPONSIBLE FOR YOUR ACTIONS OR ANY RESULTING LOSS OR DAMAGE OF ANY DESCRIPTION, SHOULD ANY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF WHAT YOU DO.

The main information on this web site has been gathered together into a standard book format. You can download the main set of information, including the patents, as an eBook, using this link eBook Release 18.6. The document contains some 2,200 pages and has a file size of about 32 Mb which means that it will take some time to download. It is also possible to use a background download from fileFactory. Alternatively, you can pick individual chapters as you wish. May I suggest that you store anything you download on your local drive as web sites do not remain in place for ever. The last few updates to this document are listed here.

Contents eBook Index: An explanation of the background followed by a general index, an index of devices and an index of the people and devices mentioned. HTML

Introduction Newcomer's Introduction: A quick guide to what Free-Energy is all about, explaining the basics. HTML

Chapter 1 Magnet Power: The Wang magnet motor, the Ecklin-Brown motor-generator, Howard Johnson's magnet motor, the 'Carousel' magnet motor, Robert Tracy's magnet motor, Ben Teal's electromagnetic motor, the Jines magnet motor, Stephen Kundel's magnet motor, Charles Flynn's magnet motor, the Steorn magnetic device, George Soukup's magnet motor, Dietmar Hohl's magnet motor, the Muammer Yildiz magnet motor patent, Steele Braden's magnetic track, Emil Hartman's magnetic track, Howard Johnson's magnetic track, the shielded twin-rotor idea, Don Kelly's magnet motor patent and Mike Brady's 'Perendev' Magnet Motor. size 1.0 Mb, 14 Mar 2011 HTML

Chapter 2 Moving Pulsed Systems: The Adams motor/generator, the Phemax self-powered motor/generator, Raymond Kromrey's No-drag Generator, Teruo Kawai's motor, self-powered 800 watt generator, the Muller motor, the RotoVerter, Raoul Hatem's free-energy rotor system, Phil Wood's energy pick-up, Phil Wood's DC motor RotoVerter modification, the David Kousoulides energy pick-up system, Mark Wesling's five-rotor generator concept and Art Porter's magnetic motor system. size 1.3 Mb, 6 Jan 2011 HTML

Chapter 3 Motionless Pulsed Systems: Graham Gunderson's Solid-state Electric Generator, Charles Flynn's magnetic power enhancement system, Lawrence Tseung's magnetic frame, Thane Hines' dual toroid magnetic frame, Dietmar Wehr's Y-frame motionless generator idea, the Annis/Eberly Motionless Generator, the Richard Willis COP>1 generator, TheGuru2You's self-powered electrical generator, Floyd Sweet's VTA, Dan Davidson's acoustic generator, the Pavel Imris optical amplifier, Michael Ognyanov's self-powered power pack, the Meyer-Mace Isotopic Generator, the Colman/Seddon-Gilliespie generator, Hans Coler's passive device, Don Smith's "Resonance Energy Methods", Kwang-jeek Lee's power amplification system, Tariel Kapaladze's self-powered electrical generator, Meguer Kalfaian's Electron-spin power generator and Stan Meyer's Particle Generator patent. size 1.9 Mb, 6 May 2011 HTML

Chapter 4 Gravitational Pulsed Systems: Lawrence Tseung's pulsed wheel, Lawrence Tseung's Impact gravity wheel, Chas Campbell's pulsed flywheel, John Bedini's pulsed flywheel, James Hardy's water-jet generator, the Magnetic Pendulum, Jerzy Zbikowski's Chain Drive, Gravitational Effects, Mikhail Dmitriev's gravity wheel, the Dale Simpson gravity wheel, the Veljko Milkovic pendulum/lever system, the Dale Simpson hinged-plate system, Amr Al-Hossary's gravity wheel and the Murilo Luciano gravity chain. size 1 Mb, 21 Mar 2011 HTML

Chapter 5 Energy-Tapping Pulsed Systems: Frank Prentice's electrical power accumulator, Dave Lawton's cold electricity water-splitter cell, John Bedini's pulsed battery charger, the Tesla Switch, Dave Lawton's cold electricity lightbulb, Bob Boyce's COP=12 energy tapping toroid, Don Smith's devices, Steven Mark's TPU, a Nikola Tesla patent, the Ed Gray power tube, Radiant Energy waves, Nikola Tesla's experiments, Don Smith information, the Alberto Molina-Martinez generator, Alfred Hubbard's device, Joseph Cater's device, Floyd Sweet's VTA, Rosemary Ainslie's heater design, Joseph H. Cater's self-powered generator and Dr Oleg Gritskevitch's 1.5 MW generator. size 1 Mb, 17 Jun 2011 HTML

Chapter 6 Battery-Charging Pulsed Systems: John Bedini's pulsed systems, battery information from Ronald Knight, Ron Pugh's battery charger build, a self-charging battery pulser, the fan pulse charger, the automotive pulse charger, the self-charging motor, the Alexkor battery charger, the one-battery pulse charger and the Tesla Switch. size 841 Kb, 9 Mar 2011 HTML

Chapter 7 Aerial Systems: Nikola Tesla's Aerial Plate System, a recent replication of Tesla's Aerial Plate System, Thomas Henry Moray's system, Moray King's circuit suggestions, Hermann Plauston's systems, Roy Meyer's device, Raymond Phillips' RF to DC aerial system and the 'Alexkor' aerial system. size 342 Kb, 9 Mar 2011 HTML

Chapter 8 Fuel-less Engines: The energy in air, Bob Teal's compressed air engine, Scott Robertson's thoughts on putting low-pressure air into a tank of high-pressure air, the Leroy Rogers compressed-air vehicle engine adaption, the Vortex Tube, the Eber Van Valkinberg compressed fluids engine, the Clem engine, Vortex analysis by Prof. Evert, the Josef Papp engine, the Robert Britt engine, the Michael Eskeli turbines, the water-jet generator and the Cahill / Scott generator. size 474 Kb, 17 Jun 2011 HTML

Chapter 9 Passive Systems: Hans Coler's device, Thomas Trawoeger's pyramid, Karel Drbal's pyramid, James Brock's pyramids, Verne Cameron's pyramid transmission technique, the Pancake coil, Peter Grandic's patent, Les Brown's pyramid information, Joseph Cater's explanation of how all pyramids work, Pier Ighina's passive energy devices, the Joe Cell, Bill Williams' design and recent analytical advances, co-ax cable electrets and Joseph H. Cater's free-energy box. size 1.1 Mb 17 Jun 2011 HTML

Chapter 10 Vehicle Systems: The HydroStar and HydroGen designs, running an engine on water alone, Hydroxy Boosters, electrolyser design, the 'Hogg' electrolyser, Pulse Width Modulation current control, Dave Lawton's replication of Stan Meyer's Water Fuel Cell water-splitter, Dave Lawton's circuits and construction details, pipe-tuning details, Dr Cramton's low-power water-splitting, Stan Meyer's water injection system, Peter Lowrie's hydroxy system, mpg improvement through cam timing, the Firestorm spark plug, Ted Ewert's Vortex Turbine, Water Vapour Injection systems, the Ram Implosion Wing, Fuelsavers, high mpg carburettors, Vortex fuel reformers and the weird nature of water. size 1.4 Mb, 15 Mar 2011 HTML

Chapter 11 Other Devices: Nikola Tesla's power from air system, Dr. Harold Apsden's Electrical Power Generating Apparatus patent, Our Energy Future, Paulo and Alexandra Correa's conversion of Longitudinal Electromagnetic Waves to ordinary electricity, Prof. Constantin Meyl's scalar wave information, Nikola Tesla's MHD device, the effects of the Zero-Point Energy field, John R. R, Searle's self-powered garvitational device, construction details for Dave Lawton's gravity wave detector, the Butch Lafonte motor/generator, the Joseph Newman motor, the differences between Maxwell and Heaviside, Daniel Cook's electrical generator, Michael Eskeli's work-free heater design, Karl Schapeller's Device, Condensation-induced water hammer, William Hyde's COP=10 electrostatic power generator and Joseph Cater's scientific information. size 1.5 Mb, 17 Jun 2011 HTML

Chapter 12 Electronics Tutorial: Simple descriptions of Voltage, resistors, capacitors, current flow, multimeters, transistor circuits, sensor systems, relays, diodes, transistor testing circuits, Power Supply Units, AC, DC, rectification, the SCR, the triac, the opto-isolator, LEDs, chokes, transformers, the Schmitt Trigger, solenoids, RF detection, coil impedance, the diode bridge, multivibrators, inverters, truth tables, the 7414 chip, NAND gates, latches, bistables, gating, the 4093 chip, prototype construction, the 4011, the Darlington pair, using a gate as an amplifier, the 555 chip, the 741 chip, op-amps and comparators, a simple, versatile, Schmitt inverter signal generator, the CD4022BC chip, the CD4017B with divide-by-25 example, programming the PIC chip, capacitors, AC current in coils, resonance, constructing prototypes, test equipment and how to build it, and 'the weird stuff'. size 847 Kb, 13 Jan 2011 HTML

Chapter 13 Doubtful Devices: Paul Baumann's Thestatika, Michael Faraday's Homopolar Generator (or the N-Machine), the Borderland Science AC version of the N-machine, the Romag and Mini-Romag, Cold Fusion, Moller's Atomic Hydrogen Generator, Muammer Yildiz's 'Ocean Star' electrical generator, Jesse McQueen's 'Internal Energy-generating Power Source', the 'D18' Nitro Cell, the HydroStar and HydroGen systems, Hydrogen from Aluminium, Francois Cornish's system, Ultrasonic Water-splitting, Tom Bearden's Motionless Electromagnetic Generator, Dave Lawton's assymetric MEG and Valeri Ivanov's Motionless Generator. size 689 Kb, 17 Jun 2011 HTML

Chapter 14 Renewable-Energy Devices: Efficient solid-fuel burners, Stan Meyer's hydroxy gas burner system, the Kim heaters, the Eugene Frenette heater, the Eugene Perkins heater, the multi-disc heater, the Peter Davey heater, the simple home-build windmill design from Dan Bartmann and Dan Fink, Frank Herbert's high-efficiency windmill, the 'Power Plant for Caravans' from Claude Mead and William Holmes, the easy-build Solar Funnel cooker, water and milk pasteurisation, the Solar Funnel as a Cooler, the Solar Puddle, the 'Easy-Lid Cooker', drinking water systems, solar sills, Elmer Grimes' high-volume drinking water from air, the Chalice Courneya water from air system, Toribio Bellocq's well-pumping system, Richard Dickinson's well-pumping system, Arthur Bentley's well-pumping system, the self-powered Ram Pump, wave power systems, solar icemaking, Einstein's refrigeration through heating and solar panels. size 1.4 Mb, 5 Dec 2010 HTML

Chapter 15 The current situation: why free-energy devices are not yet on sale in your local shop. How to get out of debt: the situation in the UK, the deception of "Joinder", the deception of "Notice", the deception of "Includes", the deception of "Summons", the deception of the "Name", the deception of the "Birth Certificate", the deception of "Registration", the "Government" is actually a company, meet your "strawman", what the police can and can't do, the situation in America, economic hit-men and their actions, the techniques used against you, the resulting consequences, research material and the practical situation and what you can do about it. size 287 Kb, 9 Mar 2011 HTML

Chapter 16 A selection of Questions asked by readers and the Answers provided. Topics: What Should I Build? with opinions expressed on more than 90 devices, Electrolysis, Magnet Motors, Don Smith's Devices and General Queries and magnetic heater details. size 515 Kb, 6 Feb 2011 HTML

The last few updates to the eBook are listed here.

Appendix Part 1 The Appendix is part of the eBook and is normally downloaded with it. However, there have been one or two requests for it to be available as a separate download, so here is Part 1 which is 4 Mb in size and which contains:
a table of wire sizes, their diameter, current-carrying capacity, frequency limits, etc.
Frank Fecera’s permanent magnet motor patent
Howard Johnson’s permanent magnet motor patent
Harold Ewing’s Carousel permanent magnet-generator patent
The Pavel Imris minimal power lighting system patent
The Colman/Seddon-Gillespie 70-year battery patent
The Jon Sok An Lenz-less electrical generator patent
The Molina Martinez self-powered electrical generator patent
Michael Ognyanov’s solid-state electrical generator patent
Edwin Gray’s electric motor patent
Edwin Gray’s electric power supply patent
The Adams-Aspden electrical motor-generator patent
William Barbat’s self-powered electrical generator patent
John Reardon’s AC generator patent
Geoffrey Spence’s self-powered electrical generator patent
Robert Alexander’s COP = 2.93 electrical generator patent
Shigeaki Hayasaka’s electrical generator patent
Larry Jamison’s electrical generator patent application
Teruo Kawai’s COP>1 electric motor patent
Joseph Newman’s Energy Generator patent
Philip Brody’s very high output ceramic solar devices patent
Charles Flynn’s controlled magnetic devices patent
The Motionless Electromagnetic Generator patent
Dan Davidson’s acoustic-magnetic electrical generator patent
John Bedini’s battery-charging patent
John Bedini’s motor-generator patent and
John Bedini’s pulse-charging system patent.
Background download

Appendix Part 2 Size 4 Mb, containing:
Richard Weir and Carl Nelson’s battery replacement patent
Hermann Plauston’s aerial power systems patent
Roy Meyers’ Electricity-producing device patent
Paulo and Alexandra Correa’s free-electricity patent
Paulo and Alexandra Correa’s energy conversion patent
The Mead-Nachamkin ZPE to electricity conversion patent
Stanley Meyer’s Water Fuel patent 4,936,961
Stanley Meyer’s hydrogen injection system for vehicles patent 4,389,981
Stanley Meyer’s hydrogen gas burner patent 4,421,474
Stanley Meyer’s hydrogen generation and enhancement patent 5,149,407
Stanley Meyer’s water fuel generator patent CA 2,067,735
Stanley Meyer’s WFC control circuitry patent WO 92/07861
Stephen Meyer’s water-splitting patent application 2005/0246059
Henry Puharich’s water-splitting patent 4,392,230
Shigeta Hasebe’s spiral electrolyser patent
Stephen Chambers’ hydroxy generator patent (Xogen Power Inc.)
Charles Garrett’s water carburettor patent
Archie Blue’s electrolyser patent
Ruggero Santilli’s plasma arc electrolysis patent
Chak Chang’s low-voltage, low-temperature plasma patent application.
Background download

Appendix Part 3 Size 7 Mb, containing:
Juan Aguero’s water-engine patent application
Stephen Horvath’s water-powered car patent
Christopher Eccles’ water-splitting cell patent
Spiro Spiros’ COP>1 electrolyser patent
Henry Paine’s hydroxy gas conversion patent
Boris Volfson’s gravity space-drive patent
Charles Pogue’s first high-mpg carburettor patent
Charles Pogue’s second high-mpg carburettor patent
Charles Pogue’s third high-mpg carburettor patent
Ivor Newberry’s high-mpg carburettor patent
Robert Shelton’s high-mpg carburettor patent
Harold Schwartz’s high-mpg carburettor patent
Oliver Tucker’s high-mpg carburettor patent
Thomas Ogle’s high-mpg carburettor patent
Stephen Kundel’s permanent magnet motor
Charles Flynn’s permanent magnet motor
Claude Mead and William Holmes’ wind power storage system
Richard Willis' COP>>1 electrical generator
Mark McKay's investigation into Edwin Gray's technology
Mike Brady's "Perendev" Magnet Motor patent
Donald Kelly's Magnet Motor patent
Bob Neal's Air Compressor patent
The Leroy Rogers Compressed air engine conversions
Eber Van Valkinburg's Compressed Air engine
Josef Papp's Inert Gas fuel-less engine
Robert Britt's Inert Gas fuel-less engine
Floys Sweet's "VTA" Electricity Generator theory
Meguer Kalfaian's Electricity Generator
Web links to Scientific Papers and videos.

PIC18 Microcontroller Analog to Digital Converter with Microchip C18 Compiler

2011-07-05T18:56:00.001-07:00

The Microchip PIC18 Microcontroller family is the Microchip highest performance 8-bit class microcontroller. Powered by advanced RISC CPU, this PIC18 microcontroller family could deliver up to 16 MIPS computing power compared to the other Microchip 8-bit microcontroller family such as PIC10, PIC12 and PIC16 which only could deliver up to 5 MIPS. The PIC18 microcontroller architecture is optimized to be programmed in C language and supporting many advance industrial standard interface peripherals such as I2C, SPI, UART, USB, CAN, Ethernet, LCD and Touch Screen; this make the PIC18 microcontroller family become a popular choice to the new 8-bit embedded system design.

The Microchip C18 compiler is designed to fully utilize the PIC18 microcontroller capabilities, together with Microchip C18 royalty free advanced library such as USB, TCP/IP stack and ZigBee wireless network protocol make the C18 compiler is the best choice to many embedded system designer and hobbyists.

On this tutorial we will learn of how to program the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral using the Microchip C18 compiler. The principal we learn here could be applied to the other Microchip PIC18 microcontroller family as well. On this tutorial we will use this following simplify ermicro PICJazz 20PIN board schematic.

After placing the PIC18LF14K50 to the 20 pin socket; using the female to female cable jumper that come with the PICJazz 20PIN board we could easily reconfigure the user trimport and user switch to RA4 and RA5 respectively.

On this tutorial we will use two different approaches to program the PIC18 microcontroller family analog to digital converter (ADC) peripheral. The first one is to use the standard C programming code to manipulate the PIC18LF14K50 ADC peripheral registers and the second one is to use the Microchip C18 ADC wrap-up library. Now take a look on our first code:

/* *************************************************************************** **  File Name    : adc.c **  Version      : 1.0 **  Description  : Analog to Digital Converter **  Author       : RWB **  Target       : PICJazz 20PIN Board: PIC18LF14K50 **  Compiler     : Microchip C18 v3.34 C Compiler **  IDE          : Microchip MPLAB IDE v8.30 **  Programmer   : Microchip PICKit2 Programmer **  Last Updated : 28 Oct 2009 ** ***************************************************************************/ #include  #include

/* ** PIC18LF14K50 Configuration Bit: ** ** FOSC = IRC        - Internal RC Oscillator ** CPUDIV = NOCLKDIV - No CPU System Clock divide ** PLLEN = OFF       - PLL is under software control ** FCMEN = OFF       - Fail-Safe Clock Monitor disabled ** BOREN = OFF       - Brown-out Reset disabled in hardware and software ** WDTEN = OFF       - WDT is controlled by SWDTEN bit of the WDTCON register ** MCLRE = ON        - MCLR pin enabled, RE3 input pin disabled ** LVP = OFF         - Single-Supply ICSP disabled */ #pragma config FOSC = IRC, CPUDIV = NOCLKDIV, PLLEN = OFF #pragma config FCMEN = OFF, BOREN = OFF #pragma config WDTEN = OFF, MCLRE = ON, LVP = OFF

// Delay in 1 ms (approximately) for 16 MHz Internal Clock void delay_ms(unsigned int ms) {   do {     Delay1KTCYx(4);   } while(--ms); }

void main(void) {   unsigned char chSign,chEye,chType,iCount;   unsigned int iDelay;   unsigned char led_patern[] = {0b00000000,0b00000001,                                 0b00000011,0b00000111,                                 0b00001111,0b00001111,                                 0b00001110,0b00001100,                                 0b00001000,0b00000000};

  OSCCON=0x70;         // Select 16 MHz internal clock

  TRISC = 0x00;        // Set All on PORTC as Output   TRISA = 0x30;        // Input for RA4 and RA5   ANSEL = 0b00001000;  // Set PORT AN3 to analog input   ANSELH = 0;          // Set PORT AN8 to AN11 as Digital I/O

  /* Init ADC */   ADCON0=0b00001101;   // ADC port channel 3 (AN3), Enable ADC   ADCON1=0b00000000;   // Use Internal Voltage Reference (Vdd and Vss)   ADCON2=0b10101011;   // Right justify result, 12 TAD, Select the FRC for 16 MHz

  chEye=0x01;          // Initial Eye Variables with 0000 0001   chSign=0;   iDelay=100;   chType=0;   iCount=0;    for(;;) {     ADCON0bits.GO=1;     while (ADCON0bits.GO);   // Wait conversion done

    iDelay=ADRESL;           // Get the 8 bit LSB result     iDelay += (ADRESH << 8); // Get the 2 bit MSB result

    // Display the LED     if (PORTAbits.RA5 == 0) {       chType=~chType;       chSign=0;     }

    if (chType == 0) {       PORTC=led_patern[iCount++];       delay_ms(iDelay);          // Call Delay function       if(iCount == 10) iCount=0;     } else {       if (chSign == 0) {  PORTC=chEye;  delay_ms(iDelay);        // Call Delay function  chEye=chEye << 1;    if (chEye > 0x04) chSign=1;       } else {         PORTC=chEye;         delay_ms(iDelay);        // Call Delay function         chEye=chEye >> 1;  if (chEye <= 0x01) chSign=0;       }     }   } }

/* EOF: adc.c */

The Analog to Digital Converter C Code

This program basically will show the running LED pattern attached to RC0, RC1, RC2 and RC3 ports on the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller; the display speed is controlled by the voltage value reads from the user’s trimport on the port RA4 (AN3 - analog input channel 3). This voltage value will be converted by the PIC18LF14K50 ADC peripheral and passing the converted numeric value as the delay argument on the delay_ms() function inside the loop. Pressing the user’s switch will change the running LED pattern.

The user’s trimport work as the voltage divider circuit and provide voltage input level to the microcontroller analog port (AN3); therefore by changing the trimmer means we change the voltage level input and this also will change the running LED speed.

The user’s switch works as a toggle switch, by pressing it once will switch to the second running LED pattern; pressing once again will switch back to the first running LED pattern.

Just for your reference, you could read of how to program the Microchip PIC16 microcontroller family ADC peripheral using HITEC PICC on my previous posted blog PIC Analog to Digital Converter C Programming. Ok now let’s take a look at the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral registers (for more information please refers to the datasheet).

1. ADCON0: A/D CONTROL REGISTER 0

The function of this register is to control the microcontroller ADC operation such as power on the ADC circuit, start converting, channel selection, ADC voltage reference selection and ADC result format presentation selection.

The CHS3, CHS2, CHS1 and CHS0 bits are used to select the ADC input channel, by setting all these bits to “0011” means we choose the channel 3 or AN3 (PIN 3) port which connected to the user’s trimport.

ADCON0=0b00001101;   // ADC port channel 3 (AN3), Enable ADC

Powering the ADC circuit is simply turning on the ADON bit by setting it to logical “1” and to instruct the PIC microcontroller to start the conversion we just turn on the GO/DONE bit (logical “1“) and wait until this bit turn off when the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral done with the conversion; we use the C while statement to wait the ADC conversion as this following code:

ADCON0bits.GO=1; while (ADCON0bits.GO);   // Wait conversion done

2. ADCON1: A/D CONTROL REGISTER 1

The PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral uses the successive approximation method to do the conversion; this method required the reference voltage in order to work. The ADCON1 register is use to tell the ADC peripheral whether we want to use the internal or external voltage references.

By setting all of these bits to logical “0“, we simply tell the PIC18LF44K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral to use its own internal voltage reference for the conversion.

ADCON1=0b00000000;   // Use Internal Voltage Reference (Vdd and Vss)

3. ADCON2: A/D CONTROL REGISTER 2

The ADCON2 register is use to set of how the 10-bit ADC result will be presented in two 8-bit registers (ADRESH and ADRESL) and to select the ADC acquisition time and the ADC conversion clock.

By setting the ADFM bit to logical “1” we use the “right justified” result. This mean the higher 2 bits value will be place in the ADRESH register and the lower 8 bits value are in the ADRESL register. By using the C left shifting operation, we could get this 10-bit value as this following code:

iDelay = ADRESL;           // Get the 8 bit LSB result iDelay += (ADRESH << 8);   // Get the 2 bit MSB result

In order for ADC circuit inside the PIC18LF44K50 microcontroller to meet its specified accuracy than ADC clock period (ADCS) and the ADC acquisition time (ACQT) should be set accordingly

The recommended minimum value for the ADC acquisition time before the ADC circuit start to do the conversion is about 7.45 us and when we use the PIC8LF14K50 microcontroller internal oscillator the time required to convert 1-bit analog data is about 1.7 us; therefore it would be safe to choose twice the minimum acquisition time:

TACQT = 2 x 7.45 us = 14.9 us

The closest ACQT setting for this purpose is to set the ACQT to 12 TAD which give us

TACQT = 12 TAD = 12 x 1.7 us = 20.4 us

If you are not using the TACQT (ACQT2 = 0, ACQT1= 0 and ACQT0 = 0) you have to do the delay in program before starting the AD conversion, therefore it always safer to use the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ACQT feature. The following is the complete ADCON2 setup:

ADCON2=0b10101011;   // Right justify result, 12 TAD, Select the FRC for 16 MHz

The PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral is also capable of generating interrupt when it finish the conversion by setting the ADC interrupt flag ADIF bit to logical “1” in PIR1 register, but for the purpose of this tutorial we will not use this facility.

Initial the Internal Oscillator clock and ADC Port

One of the most important setup before we could use the PIC ADC peripheral is to configure the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller internal clock and ports.

By setting the IRCF2, IRCF1 and IRCF0 bits to logical “1” on the OSCCON register we choose the 16 MHz internal clock from the high frequency internal oscillator (HFINTOSC):

OSCCON=0x70;         // Select 16 MHz internal clock

For the analog input this can be done by setting the TRISA, ANSEL and ANSELH registers as the following code:

TRISC = 0x00;        // Set All on PORTC as Output TRISA = 0x30;        // Input for RA4 and RA5 ANSEL = 0b00001000;  // Set PORT AN3 to analog input ANSELH = 0;          // Set PORT AN8 to AN11 as Digital I/

Because the we use both RA4 and RA5 ports as an input ports (RA4 for user’s trimport and RA5 for user’s switch) then we turn on the tristate input gate on these ports by setting the TRISA to 0×30 and enabling the AN3 analog input selection by setting the ANSEL to 0b00001000 (0×08 hex value). For the LED’s, we just enabling all of the PORTC tristate gate ports as an output by setting the TRISC register to all zero.

Downloading your C18 ADC project Code

After compiling and simulating your code hook up your PICKit2 programmer to the PICJazz 20PIN board ICSP port turn on the PICJazz 20PIN power. From the MPLAB IDE menu select Programmer -> Select Programmer -> Pickit2 it will automatically configure the connection and display it on the PICkit2 tab Output windows:

You could get the information about the size of your program by opening the adc.map file in your project directory or you could use the MPLAB IDE Memory Usage Gauge facility from the MPLAB IDE menu select View -> Memory Usage Gauge as follow:

Now you are ready to down load the code from MPLAB IDE menu select Programmer -> Program; this will down load the HEX code into the PICJazz 20PIN board:

You could see the running code on the video at the end of this tutorial.

Using the Microchip C18 ADC Peripheral Library

As I mention before that on this tutorial we are going to use the alternative approach to code the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral, where we are going to use the Microchip C18 ADC wrap-up library (version 3.34). Using this library supposedly will be much easier than coding the PIC18F14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral registers directly especially for the beginners; …hmm let’s find out how ease this approach comparing to the first one.

Looking at the Microchip C18 library (MPLAB_C18_Libraries_51297f.pdf) document the ADC library could be used as the above diagram. First we have to use the OpenADC() function to initial the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADC peripheral registers. From the library we know that this function is depend on the microcontroller type we used; therefore to get more detail information about this ADC library we have to read other C18 peripheral library document file found at \doc\periph-lib\AD Converter.htm. From this reference document you will get 12 version of the OpenADC() function and for the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller we have to use the ADC_V10 OpenADC() function as follow (taken from the AD Converter.htm document):

Function: Configure the A/D convertor. Include: adc.h Prototype:

void OpenADC(unsigned char config,                       unsigned char config2 ,                       unsigned char config3,                       unsigned int portconfig);

Code Example:

With AND mask: OpenADC( ADC_FOSC_32      &          ADC_RIGHT_JUST   &          ADC_12_TAD,          ADC_CH0          &          ADC_REF_VDD_VSS  &          ADC_INT_ON, ADC_10ANA);

With OR mask: OpenADC( ADC_FOSC_32 |          ADC_RIGHT_JUST |          ADC_12_TAD,          ADC_CH0 |          ADC_REF_VDD_VSS |          ADC_INT_ON, ADC_10ANA);

This ADC_V10 OpenADC() function will accept 4 arguments: config, config2, config3 and portconfig; you should remember here for other PIC18 microcontroller type the OpenADC() function version may accept only 2 or 3 arguments instead of 4 arguments therefore its important to know which OpenADC() function to be used when you use the other type of PIC18 microcontroller family. There is no general OpenADC() function that work to all PIC18 microcontroller type.

The ADC_V10 OpenADC() function first argument (config) is used to set the A/D Clock Source, A/D result justification and the A/D acquisition time. The second argument (config2) is used to set the A/D channel, A/D interrupt and some miscellaneous option. The third argument (config3) is used to set the A/D Vref+ and Vref- configuration and last the fourth argument (portconfig) is used to set the analog channel port (i.e. ANSEL and ANSELH registers).

Now we continue to look at the ADC_V10 OpenADC() function code example and you will notice that the example only use 3 arguments instead of 4 arguments? Is this mean that the example document give us a wrong information? Now its time to open the ADC_V10 OpenADC() function wrap-up library to find out how this thing really work. Opening the \src\pmc_common\ADC\adcopen.c file and here what we get for the ADC_V10 OpenADC() function:

#elif defined (ADC_V10) void OpenADC( unsigned char config,               unsigned char config2,               unsigned char config3,               unsigned int portconfig) {     ADCON0 = 0;     ADCON1 = 0;     ADCON2 = 0;

    ADCON0 = (config2 >> 1) & 0b00111100;  //channel selection     ADCON1 = (config3 & 0b00001100) | //Positive Voltage Reference Configuration bits              (config3 & 0b00000011);  //Negative Voltage Reference Configuration bits     ADCON2 = (config & 0b10000000) |              ((config >> 4) & 0b00000111) | //A/D Conversion Clock Select bits              ((config << 2) & 0b00111000);  //A/D Acquisition Time Select bits

    ANSEL = portconfig;   //Didn't Change     ANSELH = (portconfig >> 8);  //Didn't Change   if( config2 & 0b10000000 )  //interrupt enable check     {       PIR1bits.ADIF = 0;   //Clear the ADC Interrupt bit       PIE1bits.ADIE = 1;   //Enable the ADC Interrupt       INTCONbits.PEIE = 1;   //Peripheral Interrupt Enable     }     //A/D Conversion Status bit--A/D converter module is operating     ADCON0bits.ADON = 1; }

Hmm,.. this ADC_V10 OpenADC() function use 4 arguments after all (the example document is wrong) and this code seem similar to what we have already done on the first example; by carefully reading the necessary bits definition in the \h\adc.h file and used them with the AND mask as the arguments to the ADC_V10 OpenADC() function; do some debugging on the required PIC18LF14K50 registers, finally I came with this following C code:

/* *************************************************************************** **  File Name    : adc2.c **  Version      : 1.1 **  Description  : Analog to Digital Converter **                 Using C18 ADC Peripheral Wrap-up Library **  Author       : RWB **  Target       : PICJazz 20PIN Board: PIC18LF14K50 **  Compiler     : Microchip C18 v3.34 C Compiler **  IDE          : Microchip MPLAB IDE v8.30 **  Programmer   : PICKit2 **  Last Updated : 28 Oct 2009 ** ***************************************************************************/ #include  #include  #include

/* ** PIC18LF14K50 Configuration Bit: ** ** FOSC = IRC        - Internal RC Oscillator ** CPUDIV = NOCLKDIV - No CPU System Clock divide ** PLLEN = OFF       - PLL is under software control ** FCMEN = OFF       - Fail-Safe Clock Monitor disabled ** BOREN = OFF       - Brown-out Reset disabled in hardware and software ** WDTEN = OFF       - WDT is controlled by SWDTEN bit of the WDTCON register ** MCLRE = ON        - MCLR pin enabled, RE3 input pin disabled ** LVP = OFF         - Single-Supply ICSP disabled */ #pragma config FOSC = IRC, CPUDIV = NOCLKDIV, PLLEN = OFF #pragma config FCMEN = OFF, BOREN = OFF #pragma config WDTEN = OFF, MCLRE = ON, LVP = OFF

// Delay in ms (approximately) for 16 MHz Internal Clock void delay_ms(unsigned int ms) {   do {     Delay1KTCYx(4);   } while(--ms); }

void main(void) {   unsigned char chSign,chEye,chType,iCount;   unsigned int iDelay;   unsigned char led_patern[] = {0b00000000,0b00000001,                                 0b00000011,0b00000111,                                 0b00001111,0b00001111,                                 0b00001110,0b00001100,                                 0b00001000,0b00000000};

  OSCCON=0x70;         // Select 16 MHz internal clock

  TRISC = 0x00;        // Set All on PORTC as Output   TRISA = 0x30;        // Input for RA4 and RA5      /* Init ADC */   /*   ** Original:   ** #define ADC_REF_VDD_VDD 0b11111001 // ADC voltage source VREF+ = AVDD   **   ** We redefine this definition to ADC_REF_VDD_VDD_X   */   #define ADC_REF_VDD_VDD_X 0b11110011  // ADC voltage source VREF+ = AVDD

  OpenADC(ADC_FOSC_RC & ADC_RIGHT_JUST & ADC_12_TAD,           ADC_CH3 & ADC_INT_OFF,           ADC_REF_VDD_VDD_X & ADC_REF_VDD_VSS,           0b00001000);

  chEye=0x01;          // Initial Eye Variables with 0000 0001   chSign=0;   iDelay=100;   chType=0;   iCount=0;      for(;;) {     ConvertADC();                 // Start conversion     while(BusyADC());             // Wait for completion     iDelay = ReadADC();           // Read result      // Display the LED     if (PORTAbits.RA5 == 0) {       chType=~chType;       chSign=0;     }

    if (chType == 0) {       PORTC=led_patern[iCount++];       delay_ms(iDelay);           // Call Delay function       if(iCount == 10) iCount=0;     } else {       if (chSign == 0) {  PORTC=chEye;  delay_ms(iDelay);         // Call Delay function  chEye=chEye << 1;    if (chEye > 0x04) chSign=1;       } else {         PORTC=chEye;         delay_ms(iDelay);         // Call Delay function         chEye=chEye >> 1;  if (chEye <= 0x01) chSign=0;       }     }   }   CloseADC(); // Disable A/D converter }

/* EOF: adc2.c */

As you’ve seen from the above code, I had to redefine the third argument definition ADC_REF_VDD_VDD (0b11111001) to ADC_REF_VDD_VDD_X (0b11110011) to make the ADC_V10 OpenADC() function to set the PIC18LF14K50 microcontroller ADCON1 register correctly (using the internal voltage reference). I think this is a bug for the ADC_V10 type on the Microchip C18 version 3.34 ADC peripheral libraries.

For starting and reading the ADC channel using this library is just a little bit easier comparing to the first approach as shown on this following code:

ConvertADC();                 // Start conversion while(BusyADC());             // Wait for completion iDelay = ReadADC();           // Read result

Just for curiosity, I put this following memory usage gauge to compare the memory usage between using the Microchip C18 ADC peripheral library approach and without using it; and it’s obvious that using the first approach give you a lesser HEX code size.

After compiling and downloading the HEX code to the PICJazz 20PIN board you will have similar result as shown on this following video:

The Final Though

Is obviously the Microchip C18 (version 3.34) ADC peripheral library is not ease to use at all and certainly is not intended to be used by the beginners; as you will have to read many documents and must have a good understanding of the PIC18 microcontroller ADC principal in order to make this library work for you. My suggestion is to avoid using the Microchip C18 ADC peripheral library (especially if you are really not understand the PIC18 microcontroller ADC peripheral) and use direct register manipulation as shown on the first approach to handle your PIC18 microcontroller ADC project.

vb6

2011-07-03T22:01:00.000-07:00

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VB6 sending signal RS232

2011-06-26T21:43:00.000-07:00

1. Use computers to control the real world

1.1 Introduction

The diagram on the right is a simplified model for computer control. It starts with the user interface. Users give instructions and read information from the control target through the user interface. The software in the computer will process the instructions and send it to the control/interface board through a communication port. The control/interface board will interpret and execute the instructions according to a pre-written protocol.

The interface board uses a micro controller to interpret and execute the instructions from computer. To make the micro controller understand the instructions, it needs to be loaded with a software. The software is called "firmware" to differentiate it from the software in the computer. The micro controller can read status of an input and give feedback to the computer. It can also switch an output to high (normally 5 volt) or low (0 volt).

However, an interface board cannot drive an electric device directly since the output from the micro controller can only take very small amount of current (normally less than 20 mA). So we need to use a relay or a driving board between the interface board and an electric device. A driving board normally consists of integrated circuits (IC) that can take larger current and can be switched by the micro controller outputs. The RSVB1500 adapter board is an example of such driving board. A relay is an electric switch. When a small current is applied, it can switch on a much larger current. You can find more information in the section 1.4 of this tutorial. Sometimes the interface board and the driving board are integrated into one board (the RSVB1600 board and RSVB1700 controller belong to this type).

1.2 User interface, software and computer communication

I here put the 3 topics under one section since they are very closely related to each other. A user interface is a part of software that is used to get information from user and to display the information it received. The software needs to be written using a programming language. There are many programming languages available for writing a software, such as assembly language, C language, Java, Basic, and Visual Basic. Among these languages, C language is the most powerful and is the major language for making complicated application software. As it is not easy to command, the language is normally for professional software engineers. Visual Basic (here after we will refer it as VB) is a powerful and very user friendly language from Microsoft. It is easy to remember the commands and easy to build user interface. VB is an excellent tool for those who want to develop automation solution but do not have training on programming. The RSVBcon software is made using VB. It services as a good example about the capability of VB. The software written using a programming language need to be translated to a format that can be executed by a computer. We call this process "compile". The tool used for the translation is called "compiler". Each language need its specific compiler.

The software sited in a computer talks to a interface board through a communication port. It can be a RS232 port, a parallel port, a LAN port, or a USB port. RS232 port was mainly used for modem connection. It is also convenient for interfacing with small instruments. Parallel port is mainly used for controlling a printer. LAN port is useful for networking such as internet connection. USB port is just getting more and more popular nowadays because of its hot "plug/play" feature. It is very easy for a device user. However for a USB interface developer, it demands very profound knowledge in computer operation system.

For a VB based software, the most convenient communication approach is using a RS232 port. This is because RS232 is very simple to setup (only need two wires for communication) and VB can send commands and receive feedback through a RS232 port directly. Even if a PC does not have a RS232 port, a USB port can be easily converted using a USB/RS232 converter. The price of a converter ranges from 20 to 40 dollars. You can find more details about how to use VB to send out commands through a RS232 port in section 2.

1.3 Control/interface board and microcontroller

1.3.1 Microcontroller

A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) that includes data processor, program storage, data storage, and input/output. It needs to be programmed before it can be used. The developer first write a software (firmware) using a specific language. Then the firmware is compiled to a format usable by the microcontroller. The compiled software is then loaded to the microcontroller. This step is called programming and the tool for loading firmware is called programmer. The firmware in the microcontroller interprets the commands from computer and tells the microcontroller what to do. It will also report its status to computer. To come out a right firmware, the developer needs to know detailed structure of a microcontroller and the communication protocol between the computer and the microcontroller. This is normally the biggest barrier for a person to develop an automation solution without a background in computer control. The RSVB1000 board saves a developer the efforts in dealing with these issues.

1.3.2 Input and output of a microcontroller

Input is like the ears or eyes and the output is like mouth or hands. An output drives a device to do something and an input checks the status and gives feedback to controllers. In a control, it is not sufficient just to be able to tell a device what to do. It is necessary to monitor the status of the devices so that we know if a device has done what it is supposed to do and decide next action according to its status. The first type control is called "open loop" control and the second type is called "closed loop" control.

Input and output can be of analog type or digital type according to the signals they process or generate. An analog signal has continuous value (such as voltage and current) while a digital signal consists of "0" and "1" or their combinations.

To allow a computer to process an analog signal, the signal needs to be converted to digital type first. The RSVB1000 board has two 10-bit analog-to-digital converters for handling analog signals. Here the term "10-bit" is a description of resolution for the A/D converter. The maximum value for a 10-bit variable is 1023. The digital range 0-1023 is used to cover 0-5 volt analog input. One digital unit will be equivalent to 5 mV. If the analog signal changes less than 5 mV, the A/D converter will not be able to detect the difference. An A/D converter can be used with analog type sensors to achieve closed loop control, such as use a temperature sensor to control a heater.

A digital input monitors the two status: logic low (0) and logic high (1). The two status are associated with voltage change (normally 0 volt is for logic low and 5 volt is for logic high). The RSVB1000 has 7 digital input for monitoring the high and the low status. We also call them TTL compatible input (TTL=transistor-transistor logic). Some digital input can have extra data processing function. For example, it may count how many times the status has changed. The counter in the RSVB1000 and RSVB1600 boards belong to this type. A counter can be used with a motor encoder for position control and speed control.

1.3.3 Function of interface board

An interface board consists of a microcontroller and other functions to allow a microcontroller to work properly. Among the functions are power supply, external clock, input/output connectors, signal conditioning components, and circuit for communicating with computer. The RSVB1000 interface board is made ready for receiving commands from a RS232 ports. For example, when a string "H6" is send out from a VB software, the interface will pass the information to its microcontroller. The firmware in the microcontroller interprets it as "switch output 6 to 5 volt" and makes the microcontroller do it accordingly. If this command is executed, the LED for output 6 will light up. If you use a multimeter to measure, the voltage of of the pin for output 6 will be around 5 volt.

1.4 Drive electric devices

An electric device can be a light bulb, a valve, or a motor. Each device has a working range in voltage and current. If the voltage applied to a device is above the upper limit of a device, the device may get damaged. On the other hand, if a device draw more current than the output current of a driving board or a power supply, the system may shut down or even get permanent damage.

1.4.1 Use a microcontroller output to drive a device

Suppose we want to control a valve with a 12 volt working voltage and 700 mA current. An output on a microcontroller can only draw less than 20 mA current and can only provide 5 volt. So it cannot drive the valve directly.

One approach is using a relay. A relay is like a switch that allows you to use a smaller power to switch a bigger power. The diagram on the right shows how a relay works. When a small trigger voltage is applied to a relay, a larger power can be switched on (for the valve, the power supply should have a 12 volt output voltage and above 700 mA output current). When the trigger voltage is removed, the power supply for the device is also cut off. Some relays can be triggered directly by a microcontroller output (such as some solid state relays).

Another approach is using transistor based integrated circuits. This kind of ICs can be directly triggered by a microcontroller output. The RSVB1500 adapter board and the RSVB1600 control board use this type of ICs. Sixteen of their outputs can have up to 500 mA output current and up to 24 volt output voltage. Sometimes we can use a microcontroller output to switch a transistor based IC and let an output of the transistor IC to switch a relay for much higher current.

1.4.2 Match supplied voltage with the working voltage of a device

Sometimes the output voltage of a power supply is too large for a device. A voltage regulator may be used to lower a portion of the output to the desired voltage. There are many low cost voltage regulators available in the market (such as LM317, L7805, L7812). Their connection is quite simple. Another approach is connecting a resistor in series with the device so that the resistor will consume the extra power. Although this approach is very easy to do, the resistor simply convert the power to heat and gets it wasted. So this is normally used when the total current is very small.

A more advanced approach is using the pulse width modulation technique (PWM). In a PWM regulated output, a continuous supply is divided into many small pulses. During each pulse period, the output is set to high for some time and set to low for the rest of the period. The number of pulses per second is called PWM frequency. The ratio of time that an output is maintained high to the total time of a pulse is called duty cycle. A PWM output can be used to switch a power supply on and off quickly. It will lower the current flowing through a device without interrupting its operation. For example, we may use a 24 volt power supply to drive a 12 volt heating element by setting the PWM duty cycle at 50%. PWM output can also be used to control the speed of DC motors. The RSVB1000 board has two PWM outputs. They are used in RSVB1500 board for manipulating wattage for output 1-8. Detailed information about how to use PWM to control motor speed and to adjust output voltage is available in the user manuals of the boards.

1.4.3 Match the working current of a device with the output current of a supply

For voltage, we need to make sure the supplied voltage not be higher than the working voltage of a device. In term of current, it is the other way round. We must make sure supplied current capacity (output current) is higher than the working current (or rated current) of a device.

The working current of a device depends on two factors: supplied voltage and the resistance of the device. For most cases, the current can be estimated using Ohm's law. Let us use the relay in section 1.4.1 as an example. If the coil has a resistance of 100 Ohm and its working voltage is 5 volt, we can estimate the current flowing through the coil will be 50 mA. If we use a microcontroller output to drive the relay coil directly, the current flowing through the output will be too high (one output can only allow 20 mA). The microcontroller will either shut down or get damaged. We may try to add a resistor in between to regulate the current. If the resistor is too large, it may reduce the power below the working range and the coil may not be powerful enough to do a switch. Other options include selecting a relay with smaller working current (such as a solid state relay) and using a transistor type IC in between.

For a DC motor, we cannot simply use Ohm's law to estimate the working current. This is because a running DC motor can generate an opposite current to suppress the current flow. The faster it runs, the lower the net current flowing through the motor. The current flowing through a free running motor is normally 10-20% of the value estimated using Ohm's law. When a DC motor is slowed down due to increased load, its current will increase to make it move faster. If the motor is stopped due to blockage or overloading, the current will surge by 5 to 10 times. If the power is not cutoff quickly, the system can get damaged. In some DC motor systems that require high reliability, current detection circuit is built in.

1.4.4 Good practice in handling electric devices

Always check the specification of a device before connecting it to the system. Most datasheet can be easily obtained from internet.
Discharge your body before touching an electronic board as many electronic components are sensitive to static charge. This can be easily done by touching a water tap using a hand.
Make sure the power is switched off before adding or removing a component.
When switching on an electronic board, look at the power light indicator. If it does not light up or the light is not steady, switch it off immediately. Either the power supply is not right or a device is connected incorrectly.

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2. Visual Basic programming for control

2.1 Introduction

VB is a very easy yet very powerful application development tool under the Microsoft Windows family. As you may already know, it is possible to get your first program running in less than an hour. There are three editions of VB, they are the learning edition, the professional edition, and the enterprise edition. To develop software for control, a professional edition is necessary. The tutorial here is based on professional edition of VB6.

When we start up VB, a dialog panel will appear, asking us to select a project type (see figure 2.1). For control software development, we will mainly use the "Standard.exe" project under the "New" menu bar. When you click on the icon representing "Standard.exe", the VB development environment will show up (see figure 2.2). Double click on an icon in the tool box, that icon will appear in the "Form1" frame and the relevant properties will be displayed in the property panel. Each icon represents an object, such as a button, a text box, or a timer.

Figure 2.1 VB project selection panel

Figure 2.2 VB development environment

In a VB program, all the actions must be triggered by letting something happen to an object. For example if we want a text box to change content, something must happen to an object. This event can be a mouse click at a button, a timer is enabled, or a check box is checked. This is one of the major difference between VB and other traditional programming language.

2.2 Setup programming environment

VB has a special function for RS232 communication called MScomm. It is not included in the standard tool box. It needs to be added before making a control software. To do this, first go to menu bar "Project" and select "Components" in the drop down list. Then check "Microsoft Comm Control 6.0" (see figure 2.3) and click on the "Apply" button. A telephone icon will appear in the tool box. Double click at the icon, it will appear in the form and its properties will appear in the properties panel (see figure 2.4). One important property is CommPort value. It is the number of the RS232 port (COM port) used for communicating with the interface board. The default value is 1. If your computer has more than one COM port or you use a USB converted port, the number could be different. If this setting is not correct, the PC will not be able to communicate with the interface board. A convenient way to find out the correct port number is to use the RSVBtest software shipped with the RSVB1000 and RSVB1600 boards. It can automatically detect the port number. Another important property is the communication speed in RS232 setting. It must be the same as the setting in the interface board. The default value in the VB is 9600 (bit per second). The RSVB1000 and RSVB1600 boards use a faster communication speed (38400). You need to make the change in VB accordingly. For other MScomm properties, we can leave them as the default setting.

Figure 2.3 Add MScomm to the tool box

Figure 2.4 Set right properties for RS232 communication

2.3 A simple programming example

After setting up the development environment, we can start building a program to communicate with a RSVB1000 or a RSVB1600 board. The first thing is to build a user interface. Double click at the button icon, the text box icon, and the MScomm icon. The form will be like the one in figure 2.4. Then set the RS232 setting and the CommPort to the correct value. Double click at the form will bring out the programming panel for writing code.

Figure 2.5 is the programming panel with a simple program. It is divided into 3 sections (subs). Each sub tells what to do under an event. The first sub tells what to do at the beginning when the form is displayed (remember what we said before: something must happen to an object to trigger actions). It will do two things. One is to open the selected RS232 port. It needs to be opened before we can send out commands. The 2nd thing is to make the text box blank. The 2nd sub tells what to do when you quit a program. When the form is closed, the RS232 port is closed also. The 3rd sub tells what to do when the "command1" button is clicked. It will do 3 things. First it will send command "H6" to the interface board. The phrase "chr(13)" is equivalent to pressing the "enter" key. When the interface board receives "H6", it will set output 6 to 5 volt (high status). The 2nd thing is to send out command "A1" to the interface board. When the interface board receives this command, it will send out the value of analog input An1 to the computer. The 3rd thing is to wait until the data from RSVB1000 reaches the computer and put the data to the text box. To understand this part, we need to go a bid deeper about RS232 communication in VB.

When we add a MScomm object to form1, the computer will automatically allocate two special memory zones for receiving and sending out data. It is called inputbuffer and outputbuffer. When VB sends out "H6", the computer cannot send all of it at one go. This is because RS232 communication is of serial type. It can only send one bit at a time. Command "H6" has two characters and it is equivalent to 16 bits (In ASCII code, each character is represented by a 8-bits value). The RS232 protocol will add 2 more bits for each character. One is the starting bit and the other stop bit so that the interface board will know when a complete character has been transferred . So some bits has to wait in the output buffer before being sent out. When the interface board send data back to PC, it first divides the analog value into bits and then add the starting bits and the stop bits. Then the bits are send out one by one. When the bits arrive at the computer, they will gather in the inputbuffer to form a complete character or number. If the communication speed is set at 38400 bits per second, the time for transferring one character is around 0.25 mili second. This may appear very fast to you but it is much slower than the execution speed of the program. If we read the inputbuffer immediately after sending out "A1", the data we get will be blank as the command is still in its way to the interface board.

The paragraph from "Dim dummy" to "loop until ..." is a delay program. It checks the number of bits in inputbuffer continuously. When its data reach one byte, the data is removed and put to the text box. A command line like "A=B" in VB is not exactly like "A equals B". Its meaning in a program is "put value of B to A". A and B are two places for holding data or two variables. After the program executing "Text1.text = Val(MSComm1.input)", the content in inputbuffer will be displayed in text1 box and the inputbuffer will be empty and ready for next coming data.

Figure 2.5 Code writing panel and a simple program

Figure 2.6 Run the program

To try out this program, first connect a RSVB1000 board or a RSVB1600 board to a RS232 port and apply power to the board. Then go to Menu bar "Run" and select "Start with full compile (see figure 2.6). The program is compiled and ready to run. When you click at the "Command1" button, the LED representing output 6 in the board should light up and text1 box should show some number. If you see these indeed, then you have successfully build an application software that can tell a device what to do and can monitor its status.

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2.4 A more advanced example

In the above example, we need to click at the button to see something happen. You may wonder how we can let things happen automatically. You may also notice in the above example we need to remove the data from inputbuffer before next data can go in, otherwise different type of data can mix up. In next example, we will show how to achieve automation and how to read more inputs at one go.

First we will build an interface as shown in figure 2.7. The ten text boxes belong to one array (Text1). Each of them has its own name (text1(0) to text1(9)). We can make an object array by copying the object and paste it several times. Later you will see that using array can simplify programming considerably. The 10 text boxes will be used to display all the input data from RSVB1000 board. It includes 2 analog input, one counter input, and 7 TTL compatible input. Above each text box is a label indicating the meaning of the data in the text box. We can change the word on a label by changing the "Caption" property through the property panel. The two timers will be used for automation. The interval is set as 100 (milli second) for timer1and 20 for timer2. In the previous example, we set the properties through the property panel In this example, we will show how to set the properties through the code.

Figure 2.7 Interface in design status

Figure 2.8 Interface in running status

Below is the complete code for this example. When the "Start" button is clicked, timer1 is enabled. When timer1 is enabled, it will start counting. When the counting is equivalent to 100 ms, it will generate an event (make something happen) and start 2nd round of counting. If it is not disabled, timer1 will repeatedly generate events every 100 ms. These events can be used to achieve automation.

Code	Explanation
Dim RSVBinput As String	This section is for defining variables that can be used by all the subs in the program. RSVBinput will be used to read the input from the RSVB1000 board.
Private Sub Form_Load() Timer1.Enabled = False Timer1.Interval = 100 Timer2.Enabled = False Timer2.Interval = 20 MSComm1.Settings = "38400,n,8,1" MSComm1.CommPort = 1 MSComm1.PortOpen = True Dim i As Integer For i = 0 To 9 Text1(i).Text = "" Next i End Sub	This sub tells what to do when the software is just launched (form loaded). Here the properties are set for the timers and the RS232 communication port. In the previous example, we set the properties through the property panel. You may use either approach. Here the CommPort is set as 1. It varies with the real port number in the PC. You may use the RSVBtest software to find the accurate port number. Command "Timer1.Enabled = False" will disable the timer. Without doing this, the timer will start running when the program is launched. These four line commands clear the 10 text boxes. If the box is not named under one array, we will have to use 10 command lines to clear the box one by one.
Private Sub Form_Unload(Cancel As Integer) MSComm1.Output = "L20" + Chr(13) MSComm1.PortOpen = False End Sub	This section tells what to do when you quite the program. First it will set all output to low. Then it will close the communication port
Private Sub Command1_Click() Timer1.Enabled = True MSComm1.Output = "P250" + Chr(13) MSComm1.Output = "M250" + Chr(13) End Sub	Command1 is the name of the "Start" button. When the button was added to the form, the word on it is the same as its name. Later we changed it to "Start" by modifying its caption property. When this button is clicked, timer1 starts generating events repeatedly. The other two command lines are for setting the duty cycle of PWM1 and PWM2 output. The RSVB1500 driving board use the PWM output to regulate current for output 1-8.
Private Sub Command2_Click() Timer1.Enabled = False End Sub	When the "Stop" button is clicked, it will stop the process by disabling timer1.
Private Sub Command3_Click() Timer1.Enabled = False MSComm1.Output = "L20" + Chr(13) MSComm1.PortOpen = False End End Sub	When the "Exit" button is clicked, the running process will stop, all the output in the RSVB1000 board will be switched off, the RS232 port will be closed, and finally the program will be closed.
Private Sub Timer1_Timer() MSComm1.Output = "I8" + Chr(13) Timer2.Enabled = True If Val(Text1(0)) >= 35 Then MSComm1.Output = "H18" + Chr(13) ElseIf Val(Text1(0)) < 30 Then MSComm1.Output = "L18" + Chr(13) End If If Val(Text1(5)) = 0 Then MSComm1.Output = "X1" + Chr(13) + "I2" + Chr(13) + "S400" + Chr(13) End If End Sub	When timer1 counting reaches its set value (100 ms) an event called "Timer1_timer" will occur. This event will trigger following actions: 1) send out command "I8" to ask RSVB1000 or RSVB1600 to send out all its input data; 2) enable timer2 for reading the input data; 3) control output 18 using the analog signal An1; 4) let a stepper motor move 400 steps at step/2 ms in direction 1 when input In1 is 0. As the event "timer1_timer" occurs repeatedly, the program will trigger the actions again and again. Action 3 may be used to control a heater or a cooling fan according to feedback of a temperature sensor. Action 4 may be used to do position control. When In1 in RSVB1000 is connected to ground, In1 will be 0. Then the stepper motor connected to outputs 1- 4 will move 400 steps.
Private Sub Timer2_Timer() RSVBinput = MSComm1.Input Dim head As Integer Dim tail As Integer head = InStr(RSVBinput, "A") tail = InStr(RSVBinput, "B") If head > 0 Then Text1(0).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 1, tail - head - 1) End If head = InStr(RSVBinput, "B") tail = InStr(RSVBinput, "C") If head > 0 Then Text1(1).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 1, tail - head - 1) End If head = InStr(RSVBinput, "C") tail = InStr(RSVBinput, "D") If head > 0 Then Text1(2).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 1, tail - head - 1) End If head = InStr(RSVBinput, "D") If head > 0 Then Text1(3).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 1, 1) Text1(4).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 2, 1) Text1(5).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 3, 1) Text1(6).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 4, 1) Text1(7).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 5, 1) Text1(8).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 6, 1) Text1(9).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 7, 1) End If Timer2.Enabled = False End Sub	When timer1 enables timer2, timer2 will count for 20 ms and then generate event "timer2_timer". The 20 ms interval will allow the command "I8" to reach RSVB1000 board and all the input data to reach the computer. The timer2_timer event will trigger 3 actions: 1) remove the input data in the inputbuffer and give them to variable RSVBinput; 2) separate the mixed data and put then to individual text box; 3) disable itself. Since timer1 will enable timer2 every 100 ms, timer2 will run repeatedly as well. The major part of this section is for sorting out the input data. When the RSVB1000 send out the data, they are put together in the inputbuffer. To help identify which is which, RSVB1000 insert some letters in between. The whole data string is like "A25B119C0D1111111". Its sequence is as A-An1-B-An2-C-Cn1-D-In1 to In7. The process for sorting out the information is called "parsing". In VB this can be done using two functions. One is "InStr" and the other "Mid$". (Perhaps your head start aching now. Do not give up. After here the rest will be easy). InStr can be used to check if a word or a letter exists in a text string. Command line head = InStr(RSVBinput, "A") checks if RSVBinput has letter "A" and its position in the string. The value of variable head is the position of the letter in the string. If head=0, the letter does not exist in the string. MId$ function can be used to get a segment of content from a text string. Command line Text1(0).Text = Mid$(RSVBinput, head + 1, tail - head - 1) will take the content starting from next to letter A and end before letter B in RSVBinput and put the content to text1(0) box as An1 value. After getting An1, the program goes to next until all the input data have been sorted out. You may notice for In1 to In7 only head is used for the parsing. This is because these TTL inputs have fixed length (one letter each). We can calculate their position once we locate the position of letter D. For other inputs, the length can change, we have to use a head and a tail to get the complete piece of information. As timer1 triggers timer2 repeatedly, the data in the 10 text box will be updated every 100 ms (0.1 second).

The parsing part may look a bid complicated. It is OK if you do not understand it fully. You can copy this part to your future program for getting the input data. The parsing approach is more reliable than the approach used in the previous example for getting the input data. When you run this program, the interface screen will be like the one in figure 2.8. You may notice the icons for timer and MScomm are not there.

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3. Control stepper motors

3.1 Introduction

Stepper motors are excellent for position control. Unlike DC motors, their speed is not affected by the loading as long as it is not beyond its loading capacity. They are so reliable that an open loop control is sufficient for most situations. Stepper motors can be classified as unipolar and bipolar types. The figures below show the major difference of the two.

Both types have two groups of coils. A unipolar motor has two extra wires connected to the middle of each coil. You can tell the type of a stepper motor according to its number of wires. A bipolar motor normally has only 4 wires while a unipolar motor normally has 6 wires. Some unipolar motors have 5 wires when the two middle wires are jointed as one. Occasionally you may see a unipolar motor with 8 wires in which each coil is divided into two coils.

Figure 3.1 Unipolar stepper motor

Figure 3.2 Bipolar stepper motor

3.2 Drivers of stepper motors Stepper motors are driven using electric pulses. A motor moves only one step with one pulse. To make a stepper motor run continuously, we need to provide electric pulses repeatedly. For each pulse, the current flow for each coil needs to change following a certain sequence pattern. Below are two sequence examples for moving stepper motors:
a1 a2 b1 b2	The sequence on the left can be used to drive a unipolar stepper motor. In the first pulse, the current flows from V+ to a1. In pulse 2 the current flows from V+ to a2, etc.. In pulse 5, the sequence will start from line 1 again.	a1 a2 b1 b2	The sequence on the left is for a bipolar stepper motor. First current flow from a2 to a1 and b2 to b1, then the current in coil b will change direction. Next current in coil a will change direction. In step 4, current in coil a will change direction again.
on off off off		- + - +
off on off off		- + + -
off off on off		+ - + -
off off off on		+ - - +

If the sequence is executed in an opposite direction (from bottom to top), the motor will move in the other direction. When a bipolar motor is running, both coils are powered for each pulses, while in case of unipolar motor, only one coil is powered for each pulse. It is why a bipolar stepper motor is more powerful than a unipolar steper motor.

In the sequence for a unipolar stepper motor, current always flow from V+ to one of the 4 coil ends. We only need to control 4 switches for diverting the current to the right ends of a coil. In the sequence for a bipolar motor, current will change direction in each step. It makes the control for a bipolar motor a bid more complicated. Normally a H-bridge circuit is needed for current direction change.

Since control of a stepper motor is not straight forward, a driving circuit is needed between a micro controller and a stepper motor. The driving circuit looks after the sequence of current flow and provides suitable current output for the motor. Normally the pulse generation is done by the microcontroller.

3.3 Control stepper motors using RSVB1000 + RSVB1500 boards or a RSVB1600 board

3.3.1 Working principle

The RSVB1000 interface board has two build-in drivers for driving two bipolar stepper motors simultaneously. The drivers look after both pulse generation and sequence pattern. The relevant commands for VB are very simple. Below are two examples:

MSComm1.Output = "X1" + Chr(13) + "I2" + Chr(13) + "S400" + Chr(13)	(move motor X 400 steps at interval 2 ms/step)
MSComm1.Output = "Y2" + Chr(13) + "I5" + Chr(13) + "S0" + Chr(13)	(move motor Y till In2 =1 at interval 5 ms/step)

The command has 3 parts separated by chr(13). The first part tells which motor to run and the moving direction. "X" is for motor connected to outputs 1-4 and "Y" is for motor connected to outputs 5-8. The digit after the letter (1 or 2) tells the moving direction. As the real direction depends on the wire connection, you need to test with a specific motor to decide which is clockwise and which is counter clockwise. The second part tells the interval between steps (in ms). The third part tells the number of steps. If it is 0, the motor will move until it reaches its home position. For motor X the home position is indicated by status of input In1 and for motor Y In2 is used as indicator. If we want a motor to move to a certain position, first we need to drive it to its home position and then let it move necessary steps from there. The RSVB3000 experiment station has a sensor for detecting the home position and ready wiring allowing you to practice the position control.

A RSVB1600 board can be used to drive stepper motors directly. As the output of RSVB1000 cannot provide sufficient current for a motor, a RSVB1500 board need to be used to provide larger current. A RSVB1600 board is equivalent to a combination of a RSVB1000 and a RSVB1500 board. In the rest of this tutorial, a RSVB1000 and a RSVB1500 are used. The information can be easily applied to a RSVB1600 board.

3.3.2 Hardware connections

When a RSVB1500 board is attached to a RVB1000 board, it is ready for driving two stepper motors. Figure 3.3 shows how to make the connection. Outputs 1-4 is for motor X and output 5-8 is for motor Y. Although the build-in driver is for bipolar stepper motors, it can also use unipolar stepper motors. You can follow the same way as connecting bipolar stepper motors and simply leave the V+ wires unconnected.

It can be a challenging task to figure out which wire is a1 and which is b2 as different manufacturers may follow different style. We do not have to differentiate between a1 and a2 or between b1 and b2. It is sufficient to find out which two wires belong to the same coil. In case of unipolar stepper motor, we also need to identify the V+ wire. This can be easily done by measuring resistance between the wires. If the resistance between two wires is in mega Ohm range, they belong to different coils. The resistance between the two ends in a coil is normally less than 200 Ohms. The resistance between V+ and one of the two ends in the same coil should be half of the resistance. For example if the resistance between a1 and a2 is 100 Ohms, the resistance between V+ and a1 should be 50 Ohms.

When connecting a stepper motor to outputs 1-4, make sure outputs 1 and 2 are used by the wires from the same coil. In case of outputs 5-8, make sure outputs 5 and 6 are used by the wires from the same coil. It is OK if you swap the two wires in the same coil.

Figure 3.3 Connection diagram for using RSVB1500 to drive stepper motors

After connecting the stepper motor to a RSVB1500 board, we need to consider the power supply. The supplied voltage for a RSVB1000 can be 8-24 volts. As shown in figure 3.3, a short wire can be used to connect the power from RSVB1000 to RSVB1500 board. Since each of outputs 1-8 can only have up to 500 mA output current, the working current of the stepper motor should be smaller than this value. Ideally the working voltage of the stepper motor should be the same or slightly lower than the supplied voltage. If the working voltage of the stepper motor is lower than the supplied voltage, we can use PWM1 and PWM2 to make an adjustment. Outputs 1-4 is regulated by PWM2 and output 5-8 is regulated by PWM1. If the supplied voltage is 24 volts and the stepper motor can only take 12 volts, we can set the duty cycle of relevant PWM to 215 (refer to section 1.4 and user manuals for more information about PWM technique).

3.3.3 Position control

To drive a stepper motor to a certain position, we need a reference point. This reference point is called its home position. We can drive the motor to its home position and then move necessary steps from there. A sensor is needed to tell if the home position has been reached. Figure 3.4 shows an optic sensor and its working principle. A 5 volt power is applied to the LED and its light switches on the transistor. Input In1 in RSVB1000 is connected to ground when the transistor is on. The status of In1 is 0 (same as ground). When light from the LED is blocked, In1 is cut from the ground. Its status becomes 1 (5 volt).
	Figure 3.4 optic sensor

In RSVB3000 experiment station, an optic sensor is used for detecting the home position of the stepper motor. Such sensor is widely used for position control.

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4. Control DC motors

4.1 Introduction

It is very easy to make a DC motor turn. It can be done by simply connecting one of the wire to the positive end of a power supply and the other wire to the negative end of the power supply. It is also easy to make a DC motor change direction. Simply swapping the connection of the two wires will achieve this. The task becomes more challenging if we want to make the direction change occur automatically, to make a DC motor move at a steady speed when its load is changing, or to make a DC motor move to a certain position. A DC motor tends to move faster when its load is low. When the load is increased, the DC motor will slow down and the current flowing through the coil will increase. When we want a DC motor to stop, it will keep moving for some time, making it difficult for position control. The control becomes more complicated than controlling stepper motors. However, DC motors have their advantages over stepper motors in that the hardware connection is simpler, move is smoother, and their loading capacity is larger then stepper motors of similar wattage or size. When the load becomes too heavy, a stepper motor will simply give up (step slipping). But a DC motor will slow down and increase the current to keep the load moving. A geared DC motor is very good for moving heavy loads. The RSVB3000 experiment station is installed with a geared DC motor.

4.2 Control direction of DC motors

To change moving direction of a DC motor without manually swapping wire connection, a H-bridge circuit is needed. The RSVB1500 board has such circuits. Two outputs are needed to enable direction control. Either of these four output pairs can be used for direction control: 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, and 7 and 8. Let us use output 5 and 6 as an example. When output 5 is set to high and output 6 is set to low, current will flow from output 5 to DC motor and then to the ground through output 6. When output 5 is set low and output 6 is set high, the current flow direction and the motor moving direction will change. When both outputs 5 and 6 are set high, motor will be stopped with a braking effect. We can also stop a motor by setting the two outputs to low but it will take longer time since there is no braking effect.

In VB, we only need following two commands to change the direction of a DC motor:

MSComm1.Output = "H5" + Chr(13)+ "L6" + Chr(13)

MSComm1.Output = "L5" + Chr(13)+ "H6" + Chr(13)

4.3 Control speed of DC motors

PWM technique can be used to control the speed of a DC motor. Here we use an example to show how it can be done. The example needs RSVB1000 interface board, RSVB1500 driving board, and the RSVB3000 experiment station. The geared DC motor on RSVB3000 experiment station is connected to output 5 and 6 on RSVB1500 board. The encoder for the DC motor on the experiment station is connected to counter1 on the RSVB1000 board for speed feedback. This encoder consists of an optic sensor (see figure 3.4) and a disk with 60 slits. The disk is mounted on the shaft of the motor. When a slit passes the optic sensor, counter 1 status changes from high to low and the counter will increase by one. We can find out the speed according to the counter value within a period. Below is the Software interface and the code.

The form has 2 text boxes and 4 command buttons. Command1 and command2 are for start and stop. Command3 and command4 are for changing the set speed value. Two timers are used for automation. The interval is 1000 for timer1 and 10 for timer2. The MSComm1 setting is the same as in section 2.3. The properties are set with the property panel.

Figure 4.1 Interface in design stage

Figure 4.2 Interface in running stage

Code	Explanation
Option Explicit Dim setspeed As Integer Dim realspeed As Integer Dim pwmvalue As Integer	Define variables.
Private Sub Form_Load() Timer1.Enabled = False Timer2.Enabled = False Text1.Text = "30" Text2.Text = "0" MSComm1.PortOpen = True End Sub	This section tells what to do when the software is launched. It stops timer, clear text box, and set text1 box value as 30. Open the communication port
Private Sub Form_Unload(Cancel As Integer) MSComm1.Output = "L20" + Chr(13) MSComm1.PortOpen = False End Sub	This section tells what to do when closing the software. Switch off all the outputs and close the communication port.
Private Sub Command1_Click() pwmvalue = 200 MSComm1.Output = "P" + Str(pwmvalue) + Chr(13) Timer1.Enabled = True MSComm1.Output = "H5" + Chr(13) End Sub	When the start button is clicked, it will set the value for pwm1, switch on pwm1, start timer1 and switch on output 5. The DC motor will start running when both pwm1 and output 5 are switched on. Here variable pwmvalue is used to tell the pwm setting. Str(pwmvalue) tells VB to send the pwmvalue as string. The effect is equivalent to "P" +"200" + Chr(13)
Private Sub Command2_Click() MSComm1.Output = "P0" + Chr(13) Timer1.Enabled = False Text2.Text = "0" End Sub	When stop button is clicked, pwm1 is set to 0 (motor will sop), timer1 is stopped, and the real speed display is set to 0.
Private Sub Command3_Click() If Val(Text1) < 60 Then setspeed = setspeed + 1 Text1.Text = setspeed End If End Sub	When the "+" button is clicked, the value in text1 (set speed) increase by 1. The maximum set speed is limited to 50 count/sec The DC motor can go up to 60 rpm or one round per second. The encoder disk has 60 slits. The max achievable speed for this motor is 60 count/sec.
Private Sub Command4_Click() If Val(Text1) > 15 Then setspeed = setspeed - 1 Text1.Text = setspeed End If End Sub	When the "-" button is clicked, the value in text1 (set speed) decrease by 1. The minimum set speed is limited to 15 count/sec By lowering the pwm duty cycle, the DC motor can go as slow as 5 count/sec but the control is not very stable. So here it is limited to 15 count/sec
Private Sub Timer1_Timer() MSComm1.Output = "C1" + Chr(13) Timer2.Enabled = True End Sub	Start the automatic control process. It will send out command "C1" to get the counter1 value and start timer2 for more controls This event repeats every second as timer1's interval is 1000 ms.
Private Sub Timer2_Timer() MSComm1.Output = "C0" + Chr(13) realspeed = Val(MSComm1.Input) Text2.Text = realspeed setspeed = Val(Text1) pwmvalue = pwmvalue + (setspeed - realspeed) * 2.2 If pwmvalue < 150 Then pwmvalue = 150 ElseIf pwmvalue > 255 Then pwmvalue = 255 End If MSComm1.Output = "P" + Str(pwmvalue) + Chr(13) Timer2.Enabled = False End Sub	This event occurs 10 ms after the timer1 event. It gives sufficient time for counter2 data to reach the input buffer. First command "C0" is send to RSVB1000 to set counter1 to 0. Then the counter1 data is fetched from the inputbuffer and put to text2 box. A new pwm value is calculated according to the difference between the set speed and the measured speed. Here "2.2" is the gain for the control. Its meaning is "to change the speed by 1 unit, the pwm value need to change by 2.2. This is obtained by experiment and will vary with motor and power supply. The real speed is measured when pwm is set at 255 and 155. The gain is 100 divided by the speed difference. This code can be used to get the real speed if the pwm calculation part is removed. The section from "If" to "End if" is to limit fluctuation of control output (you may remove this section and try again). Finally a new pwm value is sent to RSVB1000 for speed adjustment.

When running this program, the DC motor will run first at 30 count/sec. By clicking at the "+" or the "-" button, the set speed will change. The real speed should make corresponding change to match the new setting. If you use a finger to slow down the motor, you can feel the increased push from the motor for maintaining the original speed.

A simple homemade Van de Graaff generator

2011-06-03T23:41:00.001-07:00

A simple homemade Van de Graaff generator

In the previous two projects, we stole high voltage from a television set to power our high voltage motors. In this project we will build a device that can generate 12,000 volts from an empty soda can and a rubber band.

The device is called a Van de Graaff generator. Science museums and research facilities have large versions that generate potentials in the hundreds of thousands of volts. Ours is more modest, but is still capable of drawing 1/2 inch sparks from the soda can to my finger. The spark is harmless, and similar to the jolt you get from a doorknob after scuffing your feet on the carpet.

To build the toy, you need:

An empty soda can
A small nail
A rubber band, 1/4 inch by 3 or 4 inches
A 5x20 millimeter GMA-Type electrical fuse (such as Radio Shack #270-1062)
A small DC motor (such as Radio Shack #273-223)
A battery clip (Radio Shack #270-324)
A battery holder (Radio Shack #270-382)
A styrofoam cup (a paper cup will also work)
A hot glue gun (or regular glue if you don't mind waiting)
Two 6 inch long stranded electrical wires (such as from an extension cord)
Two pieces of 3/4 inch PVC plumbing pipe, each about 2 or 3 inches long
One 3/4 inch PVC coupler
One 3/4 inch PVC T connector
Some electrical tape
A block of wood

That sounds like a lot of stuff, but take a look at the step-by-step photos below, and you will find that the whole project can easily be put together in an evening, once all the parts have been collected.

We'll start at the bottom, and work our way up.

Click on the image for a larger picture

The first thing to do is to cut a 2 to 3 inch long piece of 3/4 inch PVC pipe, and glue that to the wooden base. This piece will hold the generator up, and allow us to remove it to more easily replace the rubber band, or make adjustments.

The PVC "T" connector will hold the small motor. The motor fits too loosely by itself, so we wrap paper or tape around it to make a snug fit. The shaft of the motor can be left bare, but the generator will work a little better if it is made fatter by wrapping tape around it, or (better) putting a plastic rod with a hole in the center onto the shaft to act as a pulley for the rubber band.

Next, we drill a small hole in the side of the PVC "T" connector, just under the makeshift pulley on the motor. This hole will be used to hold the lower "brush", which is simply a bit of stranded wire frayed at the end, that is almost touching the rubber band on the pulley.

As the photo shows, the stranded wire is held in place with some electrical tape, or some other tape or glue.

The rubber band is now placed on the pulley, and allowed to hang out the top of the "T" connector.

Click on the image for a larger picture

Next, cut another 3 or 4 inch piece of 3/4 inch PVC plumbing pipe. This will go into the top of the "T" connector, with the rubber band going up through it. Use the small nail to hold the rubber band in place, as in the photo below. The length of the PVC pipe should be just enough to fit the rubber band. The rubber band should not be stretched too tightly, since the resulting friction would prevent the motor from turning properly, and increase wear on the parts.

Click on the image for a larger picture

Cut the styrofoam cup about an inch from the bottom, and carefully cut a 3/4 inch diameter hole in the center of the bottom of the cup. This hole should fit snugly onto the 3/4 inch PVC pipe.

Click on the image for a larger picture

Now drill three holes near the top of the PVC union coupling. Two of these holes need to be diametrically opposite one another, since they will hold the small nail which will act as an axle for the rubber band. The third hole is between the other two, and it will hold the top "brush", which, like the bottom brush, will almost touch the rubber band.

The top brush is taped to the PVC union coupler, and the coupler is placed on the 3/4 inch pipe, above the styrofoam cup collar. The rubber band is threaded through the coupler, and held in place with the small nail, as before.

Bare the top brush (so it has no insulation) and twist it to keep the individual wires from coming apart. You can solder the free end if you like, but it is not necessary.

The free end of the top brush will be curled up inside the empty soda can when we are done, and thus electrically connect the soda can to the top brush.

Click on the image for a larger picture

We need a small glass tube to act as both a low-friction top pulley, and as a "triboelectric" complement to the rubber band, to generate static electricity by rubbing. Glass is one of the best materials to rub against rubber to create electricity.

We get the tube by taking apart a small electrical fuse. The metal ends of the fuse come off easily if heated with a soldering iron or a match. The solder inside them drips out when they come off, so be careful. The glass, the metal cap, and the molten solder are all quite hot, and will blister the skin if you touch them before they cool.
Save the metal caps -- we will use them in a future project!

Click on the image for a larger picture

The resulting glass tube has nice straight, even edges, which are "fire polished" for you, so there is no sharp glass, and no uneven edges to catch on the PVC and break the glass.

The next step is a little tricky. The small nail is placed through one of the two holes in the PVC union coupler, and the small glass tube is placed on the nail. Then the rubber band is placed on the glass tube, and the nail is then placed in the second hole. The rubber band is on the glass tube, which is free to rotate around the nail.

Click on the image for a larger picture

Now we glue the styrofoam collar in place on the PVC pipe. I like to use a hot glue gun for this, since the glue can be laid on thickly to stabilize the collar, and it sets quickly and does not dissolve the styrofoam.

Click on the image for a larger picture

At this point we are ready for the empty soda can. Aluminum pop-top cans are good for high voltage because they have nice rounded edges, which minimizes "corona discharge".

With a sharp knife, carefully cut out the top of the soda can. Leave the nice crimped edge, and cut close to the side of the can so as to leave very little in the way of sharp edges. You can smooth the cut edge by "stirring" the can with a metal tool like a screwdriver, pressing outward as you stir, to flatten the sharp edge.

Tuck the free end of the top brush wire into the can, and invert the can over the top of the device, until it rests snugly on the styrofoam collar.

Click on the image for a larger picture

The last step is to attach the batteries. I like to solder a battery clip to the motor terminals, and then clip this onto either a nine-volt battery, or a battery holder for two AA size batteries. The nine-volt battery works, but it runs the motor too fast, making a lot of noise, and risking breakage of the glass tube. It does, however, make a slightly higher voltage, until the device breaks.

Click on the image for a larger picture

To use the Van de Graaff generator, simply clip the battery to the battery clip. If the brushes are very close to the ends of the rubber band, but not touching, you should be able to feel a spark from the soda can if you bring your finger close enough. It helps to hold onto the free end of the bottom brush with the other hand while doing this.

Click on the image for a larger picture

To use our generator to power the Franklin's Bells we built in the previous section of the book, clip the bottom brush wire to one "bell", and attach a wire to the top of the generator, connecting it to the other "bell".

The pop-top clapper of the Franklin's Bells should start jumping between the soda cans. It may need a little push to get started.

Click on the image for a larger picture

How does it do that?

You may have at one time rubbed a balloon on your hair, and then made the balloon stick to the wall. If you have never done this, try it!

The Van de Graaff generator uses this trick and two others to generate the high voltage needed to make a spark.

The first trick

When the balloon made contact with your hair, the molecules of the rubber touched the molecules of the hair. When they touched, the molecules of the rubber attract electrons from the molecules of the hair.

Then you take the balloon away from your hair, and some of those electrons stay with the balloon, giving it a negative charge.

The extra electrons on the balloon repel the electrons in the wall, pushing them back from the surface. The surface of the wall is left with a positive charge, since there are fewer electrons than when it was neutral.

The positive wall attracts the negative balloon with enough force to keep it stuck to the wall.

If you collected a bunch of different materials and touched them to one another, you could find out which ones were left negatively charged, and which were left positively charged.

You could then take these pairs of objects, and put them in order in a list, from the most positive to the most negative. Such a list is called a Triboelectric Series. The prefix Tribo- means "to rub".

The Triboelectric series

Most positive
(items at this end lose electrons)

asbestos
rabbit fur
glass
hair
nylon
wool
silk
paper
cotton
hard rubber
synthetic rubber
polyester
styrofoam
orlon
saran
polyurethane
polyethylene
polypropylene
polyvinyl chloride (PVC pipe)
teflon
silicone rubber
Most negative
(items at this end steal electrons)

Our Van de Graaff generator uses a glass tube and a rubber band. The rubber band steals electrons from the glass tube, leaving the glass positively charged, and the rubber band negatively charged.

The second trick

The triboelectric charging is the first trick. The second trick involves the wire brushes.

When a metal object is brought near a charged object, something quite interesting happens. The charged object causes the electrons in the metal to move. If the object is charged negatively, it pushes the electrons away. If it is charged positively, it pulls the electrons towards it.

Electrons are all negatively charged. Because like charges repel, and electrons are all the same charge, electrons will always try to get as far away from other electrons as possible.

If the metal object has a sharp point on it, the electrons on the point are pushed by all of the other electrons in the rest of the object. So on a point, there are a lot of electrons pushing from the metal, but no electrons pushing from the air.

If there are enough extra electrons on the metal, they can push some electrons off the point and into the air. The electrons land on the air molecules, making them negatively charged. The negatively charged air is repelled from the negatively charged metal, and a small wind of charged air blows away from the metal. This is called "corona discharge", because the dim light it gives off looks like a crown.

The same thing happens in reverse if the metal has too few electrons (if it is positively charged). At the point, all of the positive charges in the metal pull all the electrons from the point, leaving it very highly charged.

The air molecules that hit the metal point lose their electrons to the strong pull from the positive tip of the sharp point. The air molecules are now positive, and are repelled from the positive metal.

The third trick

There is one more trick the Van de Graaff generator uses. After we understand the third trick, we will put all of the tricks together to see how the generator works.

We said earlier that all electrons have the same charge, and so they all try to get as far from one another as possible. The third trick uses the soda can to take advantage of this feature of the electrons in an interesting way.

If we give the soda can a charge of electrons, they will all try to get as far away from one another as possible. This has the effect of making all the electrons crowd to the outside of the can. Any electron on the inside of the can will feel the push from all the other electrons, and will move. But the electrons on the outside feel the push from the can, but they do not feel any push from the air around the can, which is not charged.

This means that we can put electrons on the inside of the can, and they will be pulled away to the outside.

We can keep adding as many electrons as we like to the inside of the can, and they will always be pulled to the outside.

Putting all three tricks together

So now let's look at the Van de Graaff generator with our three tricks in mind.

The motor moves the rubber band around and around. The rubber band loops over the glass tube and steals the electrons from the glass.

The rubber band is much bigger than the glass tube. The electrons stolen from the glass are distributed across the whole rubber band.

The glass, on the other hand, is small. The negative charges that are spead out over the rubber band are weak, compared to the positive charges that are all concentrated on the little glass tube.

The strong positive charge on the glass attracts the electrons in the wire on the top brush. These electrons spray from the sharp points in the brush, and charge the air. The air is repelled from the wire, and attracted to the glass.

But the charged air can't get to the glass, because the rubber band is in the way. The charged air molecules hit the rubber, and transfer the electrons to it.

The rubber band travels down to the bottom brush. The electrons in the rubber push on the electrons in the wire of the bottom brush. The electrons are pushed out of the wire, and into whatever large object we have attached to the end of the wire, such as the earth, or a person.

The sharp points of the bottom brush are now positive, and they pull the electrons off of any air molecules that touch them. These positively charged air molecules are repelled by the positively charged wire, and attracted to the electrons on the rubber band. When they hit the rubber, they get their electrons back, and the rubber and the air both lose their charge.

The rubber band is now ready to go back up and steal more electrons from the glass tube.

The top brush is connected to the inside of the soda can. It is positively charged, and so attracts electrons from the can. The positive charges in the can move away from one another (they are the same charge, so they repel, just like electrons). The positive charges collect on the outside of the can, leaving the neutral atoms of the can on the inside, where they are always ready to donate more electrons.

The effect is to transfer electrons from the soda can into the ground, using the rubber band like a conveyor belt. It doesn't take very long for the soda can to lose so many electrons that it becomes 12,000 volts more positive than the ground.

When the can gets very positive, it eventually has enough charge to steal electrons from the air molecules that hit the can. This happens most at any sharp points on the can. If the can were a perfect sphere, it would be able to reach a higher voltage, since there would be no places where the charge was more concentrated than anywhere else.

If the sphere were larger, an even higher voltage could be reached before it started stealing electrons from the air, because a larger sphere is not as "sharp" as a smaller one.

The places on our soda can where the curves are the sharpest are where the charge accumulates the most, and where the electrons are stolen from the air.

Air ionizes in an electric field of about 25,000 volts per inch. Ionized air conducts electricity like a wire does. You can see the ionized air conducting electricity, because it gets so hot it emits light. It is what we call a spark.

Since our generator can draw sparks that are about a half inch long, we know we are generating about 12,500 volts.

Some fun with the Van de Graaf generator

One of the fun things to do with a Van de Graaff generator is to show how like charges repel.

We take a paper napkin, and cut thin strips of the lightweight paper. We then tape the ends of the paper together at one end, and tape that end onto the Van de Graaf generator.

The effect will look somewhat like long hair cascading down the soda can.

Now turn the Van de Graaff generator on. The thin strips of paper all get the same charge, and start to repel from one another. The effect is "hair raising". The strips start to stand out straight from the can, like the hair on the back of a scared cat.

Click on the image for an animated movie

A high voltage ion motor

This motor is very simple to build, and goes together in a few minutes. All you need is two pieces of wire, the small metal cap from the fuse we took apart in the previous project, and some cellophane tape.

The motor creates an ion wind that spins it around like a helicopter.

Click on the image for a larger picture

First, take one piece of wire (a straightened paper clip will do), and cut the end at an angle so it is sharp. Bend the other end into a rough loop or triangle, so the wire will stand up with the sharp point facing straight up. A little tape will help hold it onto the table, or a block of wood.

Click on the image for a larger picture

The armature (the part that spins) is made from the other piece of wire and the metal cap we saved when we took apart the fuse. Sharpen both ends of the wire by cutting the ends at a diagonal, like we did with the base wire. Bend the wire into an S shape. The pointed ends of the wire should point at 90 degrees from the center straight part of the wire.

Click on the image for a larger picture

Attach the metal cap to the center of the wire with tape. Place the cap onto the pointed end of the base wire, and bend the S shaped ends of the armature wire down, so it will balance easily on the sharp end of the base wire.

The armature should now spin freely if you tap it gently.

Connect a source of high voltage to the base wire using an alligator clip or a wire. The high voltage source can be the Van de Graaff generator, or just a couple square feet of aluminum foil pressed against the front of your television set, as we did in earlier projects.

As the high voltage is turned on, the armature will start to spin in the direction away from the sharp points. The Van de Graaff generator may need a good ground, or a person holding onto the ground wire. The television will give the motor a good kick every time it is turned on or off, and turning it on and off every second will get it spinning quite rapidly.

How does it do that?

The motor works by ionizing the air, and then pushing against the ionized air.

As we explained in the previous project, electric charges are concentrated by sharp points. The sharp points on the ends of the armature concentrate the charges so much that the air around the points becomes charged as well.

Since the air has the same charge as the wire, the two repel one another. You can actually feel a small wind coming from the sharp point. As the wire pushes on the charged air, they both move away from one another. The air blows away, and the wire spins.

Build An Ion Detector and Test Your Negative Ionizer

2011-06-03T19:31:00.000-07:00

Build An Ion Detector and Test Your Negative Ionizer
by Vincent Vollono from "Spring 1994 Electronics Hobbyists Handbook"

Ions are defined as electrically charged atoms. Positively charged ions have a deficiency of electrons, and negatively charged ions have a surplus of electrons. An ion can also be classified as an atom or molecule with an electrostatic charge. Another classification of an ion is a charged particle that is formed when one or more electrons are taken from or added to a previously neutral atom or molecule.

The Ion Detector described in this article can be used to detect the presence of free ions in the air. The Ion Detector, a handheld unit about the size of a pack of cigarettes, is designed to indicate ion emissions from Ion Generators, high-voltage leakage points, static-electricity sources, electric-field gradients, and in other situations where the presence of their relative flux density is required.

The front cover features, a sensitivity control with on-off switch, a high flux indicator lamp, and a panel meter. An antenna, mounted on the top of the unit, serves an external ion collector. A strip of metallic foil on the outside of the plastic enclosure touches the users hand and is used to ground the unit. For fixed applications, the strip can be replaced by a wire connected to the ground.

Circuit Description. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the Ion Detector - a rather simple circuit consisting of three transistors (two PN2907 PNP units, and a single PN2222 NPN unit), three resistors, an antenna, and an LED.

In that circuit, a telescoping antenna is used as the pickup. In the presence of an ion field, ions accumulate on the antenna, causing a minute negative current to flow to the base of Q1. Capacitor C1 and resistor R1 form an RC network, whose function is to eliminate any rapid fluctuations. Once the negative current becomes large enough, it causes Q1 to turn on, connecting the negative terminal of battery B1 to the base of Q2. That forward biases Q2, causing it to turn on. That, in turn, couples the base of Q3 to the positive terminal of the battery, forward biases Q3 - whose collector is in series with current-limiting resistor R2 and meter-sensitivity control R3 - causing it to conduct.

With Q3 turned on, meter M1 indicates (in a non-linear manner) the relative level of ion flux, while LED1 (which is connected in series with Q3's emitter) lights to give a visual indication of strong ion fields. It should be noted that in order for the unit to operate properly, some sort of ground is usually required.

Metallic tape is used in the prototype to provide a convenient contact for the users hand, thereby providing a partial ground. If possible, such as when the unit is used as a monitor at a permanent location, the detector should be grounded to a water pipe, or some other convenient grounding point.

The detector is set up to detect negative ions. It can be made to detect positive ions by simply reversing the polarity of the transistors that comprise the circuit, i.e., PNP units become NPN units, and NPN transistor is replaced by a PNP unit. It should not that the performance of the detector is seriously affected by high humidity. Damp or moist air tends to impair the circuits ability to detect ion flux.

The Ion Detector can be used to give a quick indication of the presence of a negative ion field, aid in identifying its source, and indicate its relative strength, but it is not designed to provide an absolute measurement of flux intensity. The circuit can also be used to aid in making adjustments to ion sources, by noting the meter's needle deflection as you attempt to increase or decrease ion emissions. The Ion Detector can also be used to ferret out residual ion fields, check for ion leakage (in shielding tests, for example), or to test for static charges (in people's clothes, fluorescent lighting, plastic containers, certain winds, etc.), along with a host of other applications.

Parts List For The Ion Detector
Q1, Q2	PN2907 general-purpose PNP silicone transistor
Q3	PN2222 general-purpose NPN silicone transistor
LED1	Light-emitting diode
R1	100-megohm, 1/2-watt, 5% resistor
R2	10,000-ohm, 1/4watt, 5% resistor
R3	5000-ohm potentiometer (see text)
C1	470-pF, ceramic-disc capacitor
M1	100-mA panel meter
B1	9-volt transistor-radio battery
S1	see text

Fig. 1. The Ion Detector is a rather simple circuit
consisting of three transistors, (two Pn2907 PNP units, and
a single PN2222 NPN unit), three transistors,
a telescoping antenna (which is used as a pickup), and a LED.

( Our Note: R1 We could not find a 100-megohn resister. We used (5) 20-megohn resisters in SERIES to get a Series total of 100-megohms.)

ADDITIONAL PARTS AND MARTERIALS
Perfboard materials, plastic enclosure, 9-volt battery holder and connector, wire, solder, hardware, etc.

Construction. The author's prototype of the Ion Detector was assembled on a section of perfboard, using point-to-point wiring for inter component connections. Pay close attention to the orientation of the polarized components (diodes, transistors, electrolytic capacitors, etc.), as well as the polarization of the DC source that will power the circuit when assembling the circuit. It is very important that you verify all your interconnecting wiring.

It is highly recommended that the circuit be enclosed in a plastic project box. Once the circuit is completed, a 1/2 inch wide strip of aluminum is attached to the side of the enclosure, and is then connected to the circuit board (at the junction of C1, the positive lead of the panel meter, and the positive terminal of the battery) as shown in Fig. 1. The aluminum strip serves as the circuit's grounding point. The grounding strip can be replaced or supplemented by a wired alligator clip for connection to a "true" earth ground ( a water pipe, for instance).

The author used a telescoping antenna as the ion pickup in his prototype unit; however, a piece of stiff wire (a wire hanger, for example) would also work. In either case, the antenna must be electronically isolated; i.e., it should not be connected to ground in any way. Note that S1 (the on-off switch) is piggy-backed to potentiometer R3 (a 5K potentiometer that serves as the meter's sensitivity control). You can also use a potentiometer with a piggy-back switch or use two separate components.

For meter M1, the author used a small 100-mA panel meter; using a meter with a rating other than that specified may affect the performance of the unit. It is also important to remember that any leakage around the input of Q1 will reduce the circuit's sensitivity. To help prevent (or at least reduce) leakage, the circuit can be coated with a high-quality varnish. If you decide to coat the circuit, make sure that the unit is completely clean and dry before applying the varnish.

Use. To demonstrate the unit's sensitivity, run a plastic comb through your hair, and place it near the antenna of the Ion Detector. Making sure that the unit is grounded (either by the user touching the aluminum strip or by connecting an earth ground to the circuit), bring the comb near the antenna. As the comb is brought near the antenna, you'll note a needle deflection on the meter (indicating the presence of ions), and LED1 lights. As the detector is brought closer to the ion source, the meter needle should deflect harder. If the needle deflects too hard (pegs), R3 can be adjusted to bring the meter reading on scale. That's all there is to it. While the Ion Detector is not a precision instrument, it can come in handy in your workshop or laboratory.

Please Note: When using to check Negative Ionizer generator operation, NEVER let the antenna of the ion detector touch needle tips of ionizer. If the Negative Ionizer is working and producing alot of negative ions, it will show up on the Ion Detector as far away as 1 to 10 feet from the Negative Ionizing unit.

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UTM note

2011-05-01T04:39:00.000-07:00

Automation control system

2011-04-01T21:09:00.000-07:00

Module 1 ~ Introduction
- Lesson 1 ~ Introduction to Industrial Automation and Control, objectives: To define Automation and Control and explain the differences in the sense of the terms; To explain the relation between Automation and Information Technology; To underline the basic objectives of a manufacturing industry and explain how automation and control technologies relate to these; To introduce the concept of a Product Life Cycle and explain how Automation and Control technologies relate to the various phases of the cycle; To classify Manufacturing plants and categorise the different classes of Automation Systems that are appropriate for these; contents: [ Point to Ponder: 1 - 10 ~ Industrial Automation vs. Industrial Information Technology ~ Role of automation in industry ~ Economy of Scale and Economy of Scope ~ Types of production systems ~ Types of Automation Systems ]
- Lesson 2 ~ Architecture of Industrial Automation Systems, objectives: To describe the various elements of an Industrial Automation Systems and how they are organized hierarchically in levels; To explain how these levels relate to each other in terms of their functions; To describe the nature of technologies involved in realizing these functional levels; To describe the nature of information processing in these levels and the information flow among them; contents: [ Sensing and Actuation Elements ~ Industrial Sensors and Instrument Systems ~ The Functional Elements of Industrial Automation ~ Industrial Actuator Systems ~ Industrial Control Systems ~ Continuous Control ~ Sequence / Logic Control ~ Supervisory Control ~ The Architecture of Elements: The Automation Pyramid ~ An Example Industrial Specification for Automatic and Supervisory Level Automation Systems ~ Comprehensive diagnostic functions ~ Basis of System Selection ]
Module 2 ~ Measurement Systems
- Lesson 3 ~ Measurement Systems Specifications, objectives: Define the different terms used for characterizing the performance of an instrument/ measurement system; Compare the performances of two similar type of instruments, looking at the specifications; Write down the performance specifications of a measurement system from its test data; contents: [ Static Characteristics ~ Range (or span) ~ Sensitivity ~ Linearity ~ Hysteresis ~ Resolution ~ Accuracy ~ Precision ~ Dynamic Characteristics ~ Potentiometer ~ Thermocouple ~ Seismic Sensor ~ Step response performance ~ Frequency Response Performance ~ Bandwidth and Natural Frequency ~ Random Characteristics ]
- Lesson 4 ~ Temperature Measurement, objectives: Name different methods for temperature measurement; Distinguish between the principles of operation of RTD and thermistor; Explain the meaning of lead wire compensation of RTD; Differentiate characteristics of a PTC thermistor from a NTC thermistor; Select the proper thermocouple for a particular temperature range; Design simple cold junction compensation schemes for thermocouples; contents: [ Resistance Thermometers ~ Resistance Temperature Detector ~ Signal conditioning ~ Thermistor ~ Thermocouple ~ Thermocouple Materials ~ Laws of Thermocouple ~ Reference Junction Compensation ]
- Lesson 5 ~ Pressure and Force Measurement, objectives: Name different methods for pressure measurement using elastic transducers; Explain the construction and principle of operation of a Bourdon tube pressure gage; Define gage factor of a strain gage; Name different strain gage materials and state their gage factors; Will be able to draw the connection diagram of an unbalanced bridge with four strain gages so as to obtain maximum sensitivity and perfect temperature compensation; Name different methods for force measurement with strain gages; contents: [ Pressure Measurement ~ Diaphragms ~ Bellows ~ Bourdon Tube ~ Measurement of Force ~ Strain Gage ~ Gage Factor ~ Metallic Strain Gage ~ Semiconductor type Strain Gage ~ Strain Gage Bridge ~ Load Cell ~ Proving Ring ~ Cantilever Beam ]
- Lesson 6 ~ Displacement and Speed Measurement, objectives: Name three methods of displacement measurement using passive electrical sensors; Sketch the construction and characteristics of LVDT; Explain the principles of operation of inductive and capacitive types of proximity sensors; Distinguish between variable distance and variable area type of capacitance displacement sensors; Sketch and explain the principle of operation of a optical type displacement sensor; Name two methods of noncontact type speed sensing and explain their principles of operation; contents: [ Displacement Measurement ~ Potentiometer ~ Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT) ~ Inductive type Sensors ~ Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) ~ Capacitance Sensors ~ Optical Sensors ~ Speed Measurement ]
- Lesson 7 ~ Flow Measurement, objectives: Name different types of flowmeters, frequently used in industry; Distinguish the constructional differences between orifice meter and ventury meter; Understand the basic principle of operation of an obstruction type flowmeter; Explain the basic principles of operation of turbine type flowmeter and electromagnetic flowmeter; Develop a schematic block diagram for signal conditioning circuit for a typical flowmeter; contents: [ Obstruction type flowmeter ~ Corrections ~ Orifice Plate, Venturimeter and Flow nozzle ~ Flow measurement of compressible fluids ~ Pitot Tube ~ Rotameter ~ Construction of the float ~ Electromagnetic Flowmeter ~ Turbine type Flowmeter ~ Vortex type Flowmeter ]
- Lesson 8 ~ Measurement of Level, Humidity and pH, objectives: Name different methods for level and moisture measurements; Explain the basic techniques of level and humidity measurement; Explain the principle of pH measurement; Explain the necessity of using special measuring circuit for pH measurement; contents: [ Hydrostatic Differential Pressure type ~ Capacitance type ~ Ultrasonic type ~ Radiation technique ~ Humidity Measurement ~ Humidity measurement finds wide applications in different process industries. ~ atmosphere must be controlled below a certain level in many manufacturing ~ semiconductor devices, optical fibres etc. Humidity inside an incubator must ~ precision level. Textiles, papers and cereals must be dried to a standard ~ to prevent the quality deterioration. The humidity can be expressed in ~ absolute humidity, (b) relative humidity and (c) dew point. ~ Humidity can be measured in different ways. Some of the techniques are explained ~ Hygrometer ~ Psychrometer ~ Dew point measurement ~ Conductance/Capacitance method of measurement ~ Infrared Technique ~ Measuring Electrode ~ Reference Electrode ~ Measuring scheme ]
- Lesson 9 ~ Signal Conditioning Circuits, objectives: Identify the different building blocks of a measuring system and explain the function of each block; Design an unbalanced wheatstone bridge and determine its sensitivity and other parameters; Able to explain the advantage of using push-pull configuration in unbalanced a.c. and d.c. bridges; Define CMRR of an amplifier and explain its importance for amplifying differential signal; Compare the performances of single input amplifiers (inverting and non-inverting) in terms of gain and input impedance; Draw and derive the gain expression of a three-op.amp. instrumentation amplifier; contents: [ Unbalanced D.C. Bridge ~ Push-pull Configuration ~ Unbalanced A.C. Bridge with Push-pull Configuration ~ Capacitance Amplifier ~ Amplifiers ~ Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifiers ~ Differential Amplifier ~ Instrumentation Amplifier]
- Lesson 10 ~ Errors and Calibration, objectives: Define error; Classify different types of errors; Define the terms: mean, variance and standard deviation; Define the term limiting error for an instrument; Estimate the least square straight line from a set of dispersed data; Distinguish between the terms: single point calibration and two point calibration; contents: [ Error Analysis ~ Systematic Errors ~ Random Errors ~ Propagation of Error ~ Limiting Error ~ Importance of the Arithmetic Mean ~ Standard deviation of the mean ~ Least square Curve Fitting ~ Calibration and error reduction ]
Module 3 ~ Process Control
- Lesson 11 ~ Introduction to Process Control, objectives: Distinguish with examples the difference between sequential control and continuous process control; Identify three special features of a process; Differentiate between manipulating variable and disturbance; Distinguish between a SISO system and MIMO system and give at least one example in each case; Develop linearised mathematical models of simple systems; Give an example of a time delay system; Identify the parameters on which the time delay is dependent; Sketch the step response of a first order system with time delay; State and explain the significance of transfer function matrix; contents: [ Characteristics of a Process ~ Mathematical Modeling ~ Higher Order System Model ~ Time delay ~ Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems ]
- Lesson 12 ~ P-I-D Control, objectives: Write the input-output relationship of a P-I-D controller; Explain the improvement of transient response in closed loop with P-controller; Explain the presence of offset in presence of simple P-controller; Define Proportional Band; Explain the elimination of steady state error with Integral Control; Define the error transfer function and compute steady state error; Explain the advantages of P-I controller over simple P and I actions; Explain the effect of P-D controller; Recommend a suitable controller configuration for a particular process; contents: [ Proportional control ~ Integral Control ~ Proportional Plus Integral (P-I) Control ~ Proportional Plus Derivative (P-D) Control ~ Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control ~ Guideline for selection of controller mode ]
- Lesson 13 ~ Controller Tuning, objectives: Explain the importance of tuning of controller for a particular process; Name the three experimental techniques for controller tuning; Explain the three methods for tuning of P, I and D parameters; Explain the terms: Auto Tuning, Bumpless Transfer and Integration Wind Up; contents: [ Reaction Curve Technique ~ Closed Loop Technique (Continuous Cycling method) ~ Closed Loop Technique (Damped oscillation method) ~ General comments about controller tuning ~ Integration windup and Bumpless transfer ]
- Lesson 14 ~ Implementation of P-I-D Controllers, objectives: Suggest a method to achieve Bumpless transfer; Suggest two methods for prevention of Integration Windup; Explain a scheme for implementation of pneumatic P-I controller; Explain a scheme for implementation of P-I-D controller using electronic circuit; Distinguish between position algorithm and velocity algorithm for implementation of digital P-I-D controller; Explain the advantages of using velocity algorithm over position algorithm; contents: [ Bumpless Transfer ~ Prevention of Integration Windup ~ Pneumatic Controller ~ Electronic PID Controllers ~ Digital P-I-D Control ~ Protection against Computer Failure ]
- Lesson 15 ~ Special Control Structures: Feedforward and Ratio Control, objectives: ~ Justify the use of feedforward controller in addition to conventional feedback controller. ~ Draw the block diagram of a feedforward-feedback controller. ~ Find the transfer function of the feedforward controller for complete disturbance rejection. ~ Write down three typical applications of ratio control ~ Give two possible arrangements for achieving ratio control; contents: [ Feedforward Control ~ Ratio Control ]
- Lesson 16 ~ Special Control Structures: Predictive Control, Control of Systems with Inverse Response, objectives: Explain with an example the difficulty in controlling a process with dead time; Draw and explain the function of Smith Predictor Compensation Scheme; Explain the two schemes for predictive control in automatic gage control of a rolling mill; Given an example of a process with inverse response; Write down the transfer function of process with inverse response and sketch its step response; Suggest a suitable compensation scheme for control of a process with inverse response; contents: [ Predictive Control ~ Application of Predictive Control in Gage Control of Steel Rolling Mills ~ Smith Predictor by estimating the roll gap ~ Smith Predictor based on Constant Mass Flow principle ~ Systems with Inverse Response ~ Example of a system with inverse response ~ Transfer function of a system with inverse response ~ Control of a System with Inverse Response ]
- Lesson 17 ~ Special Control Structures: Cascade, Override and Split Range Control, objectives: ~ State two advantage of using cascade control ~ Draw the block diagram representation of cascade control system ~ Write down the governing equations for determining the stability of a cascade control system. ~ Illustrate with an example the use of override control ~ Illustrate with an example the use of split range control; contents: [ Cascade Control ~ Override Control ~ Split Range Control ]
Module 4 ~ Programmable Logic Control Systems
- Lesson 18 ~ Introduction to Sequence/Logic Control and Programmable Logic Controllers, objectives: Define Sequence and Logic Control; State three major differences between Logic Control and Analog Control; Define a Programmable Logic Controller and name its major structural components; Name the major functions performed by a PLC; contents: [ What is Sequence and Logic Control? ~ Industrial Example of Discrete Sensors and Actuators ~ Comparing Logic and Sequence Control with Analog Control ~ Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) ~ Evolution of the PLC ~ Application Areas ~ Architecture of PLCs ]
- Lesson 19 ~ The Software Environment and Programming of PLCs, objectives: Describe the structure of a PLC Program; Describe the execution of a PLC Program; Describe the typical elements of an RLL Diagram; Design RLL Diagrams for simple industrial logic control problems; contents: [ Structure of a PLC Program ~ Program Execution ~ Interrupt Driven and Clock Driven Execution Modes ~ The Relay Ladder Logic (RLL) Diagram ~ RLL Programming Paradigms: Merits and Demerits ~ Example: Forward Reverse Control ~ Typical Operands of PLC Programs ~ Inputs I, Output Q ~ Internal Variable Operands or Flags ~ User defined Data ~ Addressing ~ Operation Set ]
- Lesson 20 ~ Formal Modelling of Sequence Control Specifications and Structured RLL Programming, objectives: Describe motivations for formal modelling in the design of sequence control programs for an industrial control problem; Describe the major steps in the design of a sequence control program for an industrial control problem; Develop a Finite State machine model for simple industrial control problems; Develop a sequence control program for a Finite State Machine model; contents: [ Motivation for Formal Modelling ~ Industrial Logic Control Example Revisited ~ Linguistic description of the industrial stamping process ~ The first version of sequence control program for the industrial stamping process ~ Steps in Sequence Control Design ~ Formal process modelling ~ Design of RLL Program ]
- Lesson 21 ~ Programming of PLCs: Sequential Function Charts, objectives: Describe the major features of the IEC 1131-3 standard for PLC programming; Describe the major syntax conventions of the SFC programming language; Identify valid and invalid SFC segments; Develop SFC programs for simple sequence control problems; contents: [ IEC 1131-3: The International Programmable Controller Language Standard ~ Major Features of IEC 1131-3 ~ IEC 1131-3 Programming Languages ~ Function Block Diagram (FBD) ~ Structured Text (ST) ~ Instruction List (IL) ~ Sequential Function Chart (SFC) ~ Transitions ~ Basic Control Structures ~ Divergence of a Selective Sequence ~ Convergence of a Selective Sequence ~ Convergence of a Simultaneous Sequence ~ Source and Destination Connectors ~ Control Program Architecture with SFCs ~ Sequential Processing ~ Post processing ~ Industrial Logic Control Example Revisited ~ SFC-based Implementation of the Stamping Process Controller ]
- Lesson 22 ~ The PLC Hardware Environment, objectives: Describe the physical organization of hardware in the PLC; State typical components and functionality of the main types of modules; Describe typical Function modules used in PLC systems; contents: [ Processor ~ Module Input ~ Module Analog input modules ~ Digital Input Modules ~ Output Modules ~ Analog Output ~ Module Digital Output ~ Module Function Modules ~ Count ~ Module Loop Controller ~ Module ]
Module 5 ~ CNC Machines
- Lesson 23 ~ Introduction to Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) Machines, objectives: Define Numerical Control and describe its advantages and disadvantages; Name and describe the major components of a CNC system; Explain the coordinate systems adopted for CNC programming; Describe the major types of motion control strategies; Describe the major classifications of CNC machines; contents: [ Introductory Concepts of Machining ~ What is Computer Numerical Control? ~ Advantages of a CNC Machine ~ Classification of NC Systems ~ Point-to-point systems ~ Contouring systems ~ Coordinate Systems ~ Incremental Systems ~ Absolute System ~ Unit of Displacement ~ Part Programming ~ Servo Control ~ Types of Servo Control ~ Coordinated Axis ~ Point-to-point Axis ~ Spindle Axis ~ Open Loop Systems ~ Closed Loop systems ~ Appendix-2 Typical Specifications of a CNC System ]
- Lesson 24 ~ CNC Machines: Interpolation, Control and Drive, objectives: Define the major subsystems for motion control; Describe the major features of an interpolator for a contouring CNC system; Distinguish and compare open loop control and closed loop CNC; Name desirable features of feed and spindle drives of CNC machines; contents: [ Contour Generation by Interpolation ~ DDA Algorithm ~ Linear Reference Pulse Interpolation ~ Reference-word Circular Interpolators ~ Servo Control ~ Control of PTP Systems ~ Control of Contouring Systems ~ A Typical PLC-based Motion Control Board for CNC Drive ~ Axis and Spindle Drives ~ Spindle Drives ~ Feed Drives ]
Module 6 ~ Actuators
- Lesson 25 ~ Control Valves, objectives: Explain the basic principle of operation of a pneumatically actuated control valve; Distinguish between air-to-open and air-to-close valves; Explain the constructions and relative advantages and disadvantages of single- seated and double-seated valves; Name three types of control valves and sketch their ideal flow characteristics; Sketch the shapes of the plugs for three different types of control valves; Define the term rangeability; Explain the different between ideal and effective characteristics; Explain the advantage of using equal percentage valve over using linear control valve; contents: [ Ideal Characteristics ~ Effective Characteristics ]
- Lesson 26 ~ Hydraulic Actuation Systems – I: Principle and Components, objectives: Describe the principles of operation of hydraulic systems and understand its advantages; Be familiar with basic hydraulic components and their roles in the system; Describe the constructional and functional aspects of hydraulic pumps and motors; Draw the graphical symbols used to depict typical hydraulic system components; contents: [ Pascal's Law ~ Amplification of Force ~ Advantages of Hydraulic Actuation Systems ~ Components of Hydraulic Actuation Systems ~ Hydraulic Fluid ~ The Fluid Delivery Subsystem ~ Reservoir ~ Filter ~ Line ~ Fittings and Seals ~ Hydraulic Pumps ~ Hydrostatic or Positive Displacement Pumps ~ Gear Pumps ~ Vane Pumps ~ Piston Pumps ~ Radial Piston Pumps ~ Swash Plate Design Inline Piston Pumps ~ Accumulators ~ Spring-Loaded Accumulators ~ Gas Charged Accumulator ~ Cylinders ]
- Lesson 27 ~ Directional Control Valves, Switches and Gauges, objectives: Describe the major types of direction control valves, their construction, operation and symbol; Describe the major types of pressure relief and flow control valves, their construction, operation and symbol; Describe pressure switches, as well as pressure and flow gauges used in hydraulic systems; contents: [ Check Valve ~ Pilot - operated Check Valves ~ Two-Way and Four-Way Valves ~ Rotary Valve ~ Spool Type Valve ~ Two way valve ~ Spool Center Conditions ~ Operating Controls ~ Relief Valves ~ Pressure Switches ~ Pressure Gauges ~ Flow Meters ]
- Lesson 28 ~ Industrial Hydraulic Circuits, objectives: Describe typical industrial actuation problems; Interpret hydraulic system symbols and circuit diagrams; Describe techniques for energy saving in hydraulic systems; contents: [ Case Study I: Unloading System for Energy Saving ~ Mode 1: Both Pumps Loaded ~ Mode 2: One pump unloaded ~ Case Study II: Selection of System Operating Pressure ~ Venting Mode ~ Intermediate Maximum Operating Pressure ~ Case Study III: Reciprocating Cylinder with Automatic Venting at End of Cycle ~ Extension Stroke ~ Retraction Stroke ~ Automatic Venting at End of Retraction Stroke ~ Push Button Start of Cycle ~ Case Study IV: Regenerative Reciprocating Circuit ~ Regenerative Advance ~ Case Study V: Sequencing Circuits ]
- Lesson 29 ~ Pneumatic Control Components, objectives: Explain with a sketch the principle of operation of a flapper nozzle amplifier; Derive the approximate relationship between the output pressure and displacement for a flapper nozzle amplifier; Justify the use of air relay in conjunction with a flapper nozzle amplifier; Explain the advantage of using closed loop configuration of flapper nozzle amplifier; Sketch and explain the operation of a flapper nozzle amplifier in closed loop; Explain the limitation of a direct acting type valve positioner; Explain the principle of operation of a feedback type valve positioner; contents: [ Flapper nozzle amplifier ~ Performance Analysis ~ Flapper Nozzle Amplifier with Feedback ~ Electro-pneumatic Signal Converter ~ Pneumatic Valve Positioner ]
- Lesson 30 ~ Pneumatic Control Systems, objectives: Sketch the schematic diagram of a pneumatic proportional controller; Apply linearisation technique to develop the transfer function of a pneumatic proportional controller; Identify the major difference in construction among pneumatic P, P-D and P-I controllers; Identify the varying element by which the proportional gain of a P-controller can be adjusted; Identify the varying elements for adjusting the derivative and integral times in P-D and P-I controllers; Develop the transfer function of a pneumatic P-D controller; contents: [ Pneumatic Proportional Controller ~ Pneumatic Proportional plus derivative controller ~ Pneumatic Proportional Plus Integral Controller ]
Module 7 ~ Electrical Machine Drives
- Lesson 31 ~ Energy Savings with Variable Speed Drives, objectives: To describe typical methods of flow control by industrial fans and pumps; To be able to determine operating points from pump/fan and load characteristics; To demonstrate energy saving with variable speed drive method of flow control compared to throttling; contents: [ Fans: Characteristics and Operation ~ On-Off Control ~ Outlet Dampers ~ Variable Speed Drive ~ Energy Savings by Different Flow Control Methods ~ Outlet Damper ~ Variable Speed Drive ~ Pumps: Characteristics and Operation ~ Flow Control ~ Throttling ~ Variable Speed Drive ~ Static Head ]
- Lesson 32 ~ Step Motors: Principles, Construction and Drives, objectives: Explain how a step motor is different from a conventional motor; Identify the major constructional difference between a permanent magnet and variable reluctance type motor; Distinguish between the terms full stepping and half stepping; Develop the switching sequence for a given step motor according to given requirements; Calculate the step angle; Explain what is meant by static position error; Name two different modes of operation for continuous rotation; Explain with schematic diagrams, open loop and closed loop control schemes used for step motors; contents: [ Permanent magnet step motor ~ Variable Reluctance type Step Motor ~ Typical specification of a step motor ~ Driving Circuit ~ Static Torque Curve ~ Static Position Error ~ Dynamic Response ~ Continuous Operation ~ Control of Step Motors ]
- Lesson 33 ~ Electrical Actuators: DC Motor Drives, objectives: Describe the major constructional features of dc motors; Explain the principle of torque generation; Derive the dynamic speed response characteristics relating armature voltage, load torque and speed; Describe the realization of a variable voltage controlled source using switch mode power converters; Draw the block diagram a typical speed control loop for a separately excited dc motor; contents: [ DC Servomotors ~ Mechanical Construction ~ Braking methods in servo-drive ~ Transistor PWM dc Converter ~ Driving, clockwise (CW), I quadrant ~ Braking, clockwise, IV quadrant ~ Advantages of transistor PWM dc drives over thyristor drives ~ Closed loop of control of DC motors ]
- Lesson 34 ~ Electrical Actuators: Induction Motor Drives, objectives: Concept of slip; Equivalent circuit of induction motor; Torque-speed characteristics; Methods of induction motor speed control; Principles of PWM inverter; Implementation of constant V/f control; contents: [ Equivalent Circuit ~ Torque-Speed Curve ~ Speed Control ~ Variable-Voltage, Constant-Frequency Operation ~ Variable-Frequency Operation ~ Variable voltage variable frequency operation with constant V/f ~ Variable Voltage Variable Frequency Supply ~ Voltage-source Inverter-driven Induction Motor ~ Square wave inverters ~ PWM Principle ~ Sinusoidal PWM ~ Implementation of a constant voltage/constant frequency strategy ]
Module 8 ~ Industrial Embedded and Communication Systems
- Lesson 35 ~ Electrical Actuators: BLDC Motor Drives, objectives: Define the Structure of a PM BLDC Motor; Describe the principle of operation of a PM BLDC motor; Understand Closed Loop Control of a BLDC Drive; Name applications of BLDC Motor; contents: [ Advantage of Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor ~ Structure of Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor ~ Stator ~ Rotor ~ Hall Sensors ~ Principle of operation and dynamic model of a BLDC Motor ~ Closed Loop Control of PM BLDC Drive ~ Typical BLDC Motor Applications ~ Applications with Constant Loads ~ Applications with Varying Loads ~ Positioning Applications ]
- Lesson 36 ~ Introduction to Real Time Embedded Systems, objectives: Define a Real Time Embedded System; Describe major hardware components of an Embedded system; Describe typical architectures for such systems; contents: [ Typical Characteristics of an RTES ~ Single-Functioned ~ Tightly Constrained ~ Reactive and Real Time ~ Common Architecture ~ Components of an Embedded System ~ Digital Signal Processor (DSP) ~ Microprocessors vs Microcontrollers ~ Microprocessors vs DSP ~ Input/Output Devices and Interface Chips ]
- Lesson 37 ~ Real-Time Operating Systems: Introduction and Process Management, objectives: Describe the major functions of an Operating System; Define multi-tasking and describe its advantages; Describe the task states and transitions in the execution life cycle under a multi-tasking OS; Define the concept of preemptive priority scheduling; Describe common multi-tasking architectures of RTOS; Describe the classification of computing tasks in terms of their timing constraints; contents: [ Nature of IA computation ~ Operating Systems (OS) Basics ~ Real-Time Operating Systems ~ Task Scheduling and Dispatch ~ Cyclic Executive ~ Real Time Operating Systems ~ Priority Levels in a typical Real-Time Operating System ~ Task Scheduling Management ]
- Lesson 38 ~ Networking of Field Devices via Fieldbus, objectives: To motivate a field level networked digital communication architecture for implementation of distributed plant wide control; To describe the Fieldbus network protocol; To describe the basic computation and communication architecture for Fieldbus devices; To explain issues related to time synchronization, interoperabilty, communication efficiency etc. in the Fieldbus network; contents: [ Motivations for the Fieldbus ~ Fieldbus Topology ~ Architecture of the Fieldbus ~ The Physical Layer ~ The Data Link Layer ~ The Link Active Scheduler (LAS) ~ Cyclic Communication ~ Acyclic/Unscheduled Communication ~ from cyclic communications, requirements for acyclic ~ sporadic process related events, such as, ~ Alarm ~ Operator Data Update ~ Trend Data Update ~ Set Point changes ~ Controller Tuning ~ Acyclic/Unscheduled Communication ~ Macro Cycle and Elementary Cycle ~ The Application Layer ~ Fieldbus Access Sublayer ~ One-to-one Bi-directional (QUB) ~ One-to-one Unidirectional 1 (BNU) ~ One-to-one Unidirectional 2 (QUU) ~ The Fieldbus Message Sublayer (FMS) ~ Fieldbus Devices ~ Communications Stack ~ Transducer Block ~ Realisation of Distributed Control Functions using Function Blocks in Fieldbus ]
Module 9 ~ Conclusion
- Lesson 39 ~ Higher Levels of Automation Systems, objectives: Describe the major functions of Production Management Systems under Level 3 Automation; Describe the major features of a Supervisory Control System under Level 2 Automation; Describe the major features of a Distributed Control System (DCS); contents: [ Level 3 Automation: Production Management ~ Level 2 Automation: Supervisory Control ~ Supervisory Control Tasks ~ Distributed Control Systems (DCS) ~ Brief History ~ An Example Functional Specification document for Basic Level (Level 1) and Process Control Level (Level 2) Automation Systems for a large rolling mill ~ System Figures of Merit ~ Features of an Industrial DCS: Honeywell's' Total Plant Solution (TPS) System ]
- Lesson 40 ~ Conclusion and Review
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